What is this chapter about?

This chapter is about the self and identity, which is a fundamental aspect of social psychology. The chapter explores the different aspects of the self, including the personal self, relational self, and collective self, and how they are influenced by historical and cultural contexts.

The chapter discusses the processes of self-awareness and self-knowledge, which are important for understanding how individuals develop and maintain their self-concepts. Also, the chapter discusses cultural differences in self and identity, highlighting how individualistic and collectivistic cultures view the self and identity differently.

The chapter also explains the idea of multiple selves and multiple identities, which are context-dependent and can be influenced by social factors such as culture and group membership.

Social identity theory is explained in the chapter, which sheds light on how individuals derive their self-concept from group membership and how this can lead to intergroup behaviour such as prejudice and discrimination. The chapter also touches upon the concepts of self-motives and self-esteem, which are important for understanding how individuals maintain a positive self-image.

Lastly, the chapter explores the processes of self-presentation and impression management, which individuals use to intentionally shape how others perceive them.

What is the self?

The concept of the self refers to an individual's awareness of themselves as distinct from others and their surroundings. It is central to social psychology because it influences how individuals perceive and interact with the world around them.

The personal self is the aspect of the self that is concerned with an individual's unique characteristics, such as personality traits, abilities, and beliefs.

The relational self is the aspect of the self that is defined by the relationships an individual has with others. This aspect of the self is shaped by social interactions and can vary depending on the nature of the relationships an individual has with others.

Finally, the collective self refers to an individual's identification with larger social groups, such as their nationality, ethnicity, or religion. This aspect of the self is shaped by an individual's membership in particular social groups and their experiences within those groups.

The different aspects of the self interact with each other and influence an individual's behaviour and attitudes in social contexts.

How has the idea of the self developed over time?

The concept of the self has evolved over time and has been shaped by various historical and cultural contexts. Different perspectives of the self have been proposed throughout history. The essentialist view of the self suggests that it is an innate and unchanging essence, while the existentialist view emphasizes the self as a constantly evolving and changing entity. In contrast, the social constructivist view of the self emphasizes that the self is a product of social and cultural influences and is shaped by social norms, roles, and expectations.

Historically, the essentialist perspective of the self has been prominent in many cultures and religions, such as the ancient Greek notion of the soul and the Christian concept of the immortal soul. However, during the Enlightenment era in the 18th century, the existentialist view emerged, with philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant emphasizing the importance of individual experience and self-awareness.

The psychodynamic perspective was developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers in the 19th century. This perspective emphasized the role of unconscious motives and conflicts in shaping behaviour. According to this perspective, human behaviour is driven by unconscious desires and conflicts that are often rooted in early childhood experiences.

In 1879, Willem Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig. Wundt is often considered the founder of psychology as an experimental science, and his work on introspection and experimental methods laid the foundation for the study of mental processes and behaviour. Wundt believed that the study of social psychology required the use of experimental methods, including introspection and observation, to uncover the underlying mental processes that shape human behaviour in social contexts. He viewed social psychology as an important branch of psychology and as an actual science.

The social constructivist perspective was developed by Lev Vygotsky and influenced by social theorists such as George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman. This view gained popularity in the 20th century. This perspective emphasizes the active construction of social reality by individuals and groups. This perspective views people as actively interpreting and creating meaning out of their social experiences, rather than simply reacting to external stimuli. The self is not fixed but rather constructed and shaped by social and cultural factors, including language, social norms, and cultural values. Be aware that constructivist ideas are also often reffered to as interactionist ideas, because the perspective emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between individuals and their social environments. 

Nowadays, the view of the self in social psychology is mostly constructivist. So the self is viewed as constructed through social interactions, cultural norms, and historical context. It is emphasized that our sense of self is not fixed or innate, but rather is constantly evolving and shaped by our social and cultural environments. However, it is important to note that there are still ongoing debates and discussions among psychologists about the nature of the self, and different perspectives and theories continue to be studied and debated.

What are self-awareness and self-knowledge?

Self-awareness and self-knowledge are closely related concepts. Self-awareness involves becoming conscious of one's own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. This increased awareness can lead to a better understanding of one's own personality, values, and beliefs, which is known as self-knowledge. In other words, self-awareness is a process that helps individuals gain self-knowledge. When individuals are more self-aware, they are better able to reflect on their experiences, thoughts, and feelings, which can lead to a more accurate understanding of themselves. Conversely, increased self-knowledge can also enhance self-awareness by providing individuals with a better sense of their own thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.

What is self-awareness?

Self-awareness is the ability to focus on and observe one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. This process is important for individuals to understand themselves better, recognize their strengths and weaknesses, and identify areas where they can improve. Self-awareness can lead to self-evaluation and self-improvement, where individuals strive to align their behaviour with their values and goals. However, the process of self-awareness can also cause discomfort and anxiety, especially when individuals become aware of aspects of themselves that they may not like or that conflict with their self-concept. This explanation is called the self-discrepancy theory. For example, if someone realizes that they are not as honest as they thought they were, they may experience negative emotions such as guilt or shame.

What is self-knowledge?

Self-knowledge is an essential aspect of the self and refers to the information and beliefs that individuals hold about themselves. This includes knowledge of one's personality traits, values, attitudes, preferences, and abilities, among other things. Self-knowledge can be gained through introspection, which involves looking inward and reflecting on one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. External feedback from others, such as friends, family members, or coworkers, can also influence an individual's self-knowledge. For example, feedback from a friend on a specific behaviour might provide new insights into how an individual sees themselves. However, self-knowledge can be limited or biased, and individuals may have blind spots or overestimate or underestimate their abilities and characteristics. Therefore, it is essential to seek feedback from multiple sources and engage in self-reflection to gain a more accurate understanding of oneself.

The social comparison theory proposed by Festinger in 1954 suggests that individuals evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. This theory suggests that people are motivated to engage in social comparison in order to gain accurate information about themselves and their social world.

The theory suggests that people engage in two types of social comparison: upward comparison and downward comparison. Upward comparison occurs when people compare themselves to individuals who are perceived to be superior in some way, such as those who are more successful, attractive, or accomplished. Downward comparison occurs when people compare themselves to individuals who are perceived to be inferior in some way, such as those who are less successful, attractive, or accomplished.

The self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model, proposed by Tesser in 1988, suggests that people's self-evaluations are influenced by the success and performance of others with whom they are associated. According to the model, people's self-evaluations are enhanced by the success of others who are not in direct competition with them (i.e., downward social comparison), but are threatened by the success of others who are in direct competition with them (i.e., upward social comparison).

The SEM model is fundamental to the acquisition and maintenance of self-knowledge because it suggests that people's self-evaluations are not only influenced by their own abilities and achievements, but also by the abilities and achievements of others around them. This means that people's self-evaluations are not solely based on their own internal standards, but are also influenced by external social factors. By understanding the ways in which social comparison processes influence self-evaluations, researchers can gain insight into how individuals develop and maintain their self-concepts.

How does culture shape the self-concept?

Culture plays an important role in the idea of the self and in someone’s self-concept. The concept of the self is not universal and is shaped by the cultural values and norms of the society in which one grows up. There is a significant difference in the self-concepts of people that grew up in individualistic cultures or in collectivistic cultures.

Individualistic cultures prioritize the values of independence, autonomy, and self-expression. In such cultures, individuals are expected to be self-reliant, assertive, and to prioritize their individual goals over those of the group. For instance, in the United States, individuals are encouraged to pursue their dreams and express their individuality without being overly concerned about the opinions of others.

Collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, prioritizes the values of interdependence, social harmony, and group cohesion. In such cultures, individuals are expected to be modest, cooperative, and to prioritize the goals of the group over their individual goals. For example, in Japan, the concept of wa (harmony) is emphasized, and individuals are expected to act in ways that promote harmony and avoid actions that may lead to social disharmony.

Do we have multiple identities?

It is believed that everyone has multiple identities. For example, an individual may identify as a parent in the context of their family, as a worker in the context of their job, and as a member of a particular religious or ethnic group in the context of their community. Each of these identities may have its own set of beliefs, values, and behaviours that are associated with it, and an individual may switch between these identities depending on the situation they find themselves in. The concept of multiple selves and identities suggests that individuals have different aspects to their self-concept that are activated in different situations and contexts.

These selves can overlap or conflict with each other, leading to feelings of tension or confusion. Additionally, social factors such as culture and group membership can influence the development and expression of these selves and identities. For instance, an individual may identify strongly with their ethnic group and have a corresponding self-concept that reflects that identity.

The idea of multiple selves and identities highlights the complexity and variability of the self-concept and emphasizes the importance of considering context and social factors in understanding the self. People strive to bring this complexity together by constantly striving for 'self-coherence

What does the social identity theory say?

Social identity theory says that people's sense of self is not only derived from their individual attributes and characteristics but also from the groups to which they belong. The theory explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups based on similarities, such as shared interests, beliefs, or values. Group membership provides individuals with a social identity, which serves as a source of pride and self-esteem.

Social identity theory also explains how intergroup behaviour, such as prejudice and discrimination, can arise. When individuals perceive their group as superior to other groups, they may develop a sense of ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation. This can lead to discriminatory behaviours, such as exclusion, stereotyping, and prejudice, towards members of the outgroup. Social identity theory helps to explain why group-based discrimination is not just a matter of individual attitudes or personalities but can also arise from broader social and cultural factors.

What are self-motives and self-esteem?

Self-motives refer to the factors that drive individuals to maintain a positive self-image and to seek self-enhancement. These factors include the desire for positive feedback, social acceptance, and a sense of control over one's life. However, this motivation can sometimes lead to self-serving biases, where individuals tend to overestimate their abilities and accomplishments while underestimating their flaws and mistakes. Additionally, unrealistic optimism can also result from self-enhancement motives, where individuals tend to expect positive outcomes and underestimate the likelihood of negative outcomes.

Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth or value. It refers to how positively or negatively individuals feel about themselves, and is based on their assessment of their qualities, achievements, and overall sense of identity. Self-esteem can influence a range of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, including confidence, motivation, decision-making, and social interactions. It can be influenced by both internal and external factors, such as personal accomplishments, social comparisons, and feedback from others.

Self-esteem is closely related to self-motives, as individuals with higher self-esteem tend to have a more positive self-image and feel better about themselves. Self-esteem can be influenced by internal factors, such as one's own accomplishments, abilities, and personal qualities, as well as external factors, such as social comparisons and feedback from others. Additionally, self-esteem can vary across cultures, with some cultures placing more emphasis on individual achievement and others valuing social connectedness and group harmony over individual accomplishments.

What are self-presentation and impression management?

Self-presentation is the process of intentionally presenting oneself in a way that is intended to create a certain impression on others. It can involve behaviours such as managing one's appearance, speech, and nonverbal cues to create a desired image. Impression management, on the other hand, refers to the strategies individuals use to control the impression they make on others. This can involve things like selectively presenting information about oneself or engaging in behaviours that are intended to create a particular impression.

Self-presentation is a broader concept than impression management, that encompases all behaviours intended to create an impression on others, while impression management refers specifically to the strategies individuals use to control the impression they make. In other words, impression management is one aspect of self-presentation. Self-presentation can involve other aspects, such as being authentic and expressing one's true self, while impression management is more focused on creating a specific image or impression.