What is cognitive psychology? - ExamTests 1

Questions

Question 1

What is the relationship between empiricism and associationism?

Question 2

Answer the following related questions:

1. Name three disadvantages of the introspective method.

2. What was the name of the counter-movement of introspectionism and what did it involve?

Question 3

Name an important problem that the behaviorists encountered. How is this related to the concept of mental maps?

Question 4

How are simulation programs within information processing approach used to better understand mental processes?

Question 5

Answer the following related questions:

1. What does the connectionism involve?

2. Give an example of a learning rule within a connectionist network and describe how it works.

Question 6

What is the opposite idea of ​​modularity? In how far do both approaches differ?

Question 7

Answer the following related questions:

1. What is the most used functional method in brain scans and how does it work?

2. Name an advantage and a disadvantage of this method.

Answers

Question 1

Empiricists, such as Locke and Hume, believed that all knowledge came through experience. It was caused by associations that were formed between ideas and memories, whereby activation of a certain concept also activates another concept.

Question 2

Answers:

1. Introspection required a lot of training. It could not be learned by anyone (for example, mentally challenged people or children) and only applied to certain mental processes. The introspective method itself possibly influenced the mental processes.

2. The counter-movement of introspectionism was behaviorism, in which only observable behaviors were considered without taking into account internal processes.

Question 3

Behaviorism was not very applicable to complex mental phenomena such as reasoning, problem solving and language, as mental representations were not taken into account. That is why Tolman came up with the concept of a mental map: an abstract mental representation of the environment that was used in rats, for example, to find their way through a maze.

Question 4

Simulation programs, programs that mimic a particular model of human thought, were based on a certain theory about mental processes. The success of the model was then a measure of how close this theory came to describing mental processes.

Question 5

Answers:

1. Connectionism is an approach to cognition. It describes it in terms of networks of simple neuron-like units that transmit activation and inhibition by receptor, secret and output units.

2. An example of a living rule within a connectionist network is backwards propagation, a way of modifying weights on the links between units in a connectionist network, in response to errors, to obtain the desired output.

Question 6

The opposite idea of ​​modularity is that mental functions are not localized, but distributed over the brain. Modularity states that cognition consists of a large number of independent processing units that work separately and can be applied to relatively specific domains.

Question 7

Answers:

1. The most common functional method is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in which oxygen supply in the blood is measured.

2. Advantage: This method has good temporal and spatial resolution. Possible disadvantages: The complexity of interpreting the data, low reliability of repeated scans, unusual and specific circumstances in which an fMRI is taken.

Questions

1. What is the relationship between empiricism and associationism?

2. Answer the following related questions:

   1. Name three disadvantages of the introspective method.

   2. What was the name of the counter-movement of introspectionism and what did it involve?

3. Name an important problem that the behaviorists encountered. How is this related to the concept of mental maps?

What are the principles of perception? - ExamTests 2

Questions

Question 1

It is said that perception is on a continuum between sensation and cognition. What's the meaning of this?

Question 2

Name an example of an inverse problem.

Question 3

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

Question 4

Which three components play a role in Bayesian decision theory?

Question 5

Explain how discovering invariants can help to understand direct perception.

Question 6

Complete the following text with the concepts of cones, rods, dorsal flow, ventral current:

_____ are special neurons on the outer edge of the retina that are effective in low light and detecting movement. The _____ leads to the temporal lobe and specializes in determining which objects are in the visual world. _____ leads to the parietal cortex and specializes in determining where objects are in the visual world. _____ are special neurons in the retina that are sensitive to colored light and distinguish fine image details.

Question 7

Identify two mechanisms that are responsible for detecting pitch in the ear.

Question 8

The modality-appropriate hypothesis and the maximum-likelihood estimation strategy both have a different view on the integration of information from different senses. Explain the difference.

Answers

Question 1

This means that perception is a middle way between sensation, the processes through which physical properties are converted into neural signals, and cognition, the use of mental representations to reason and to plan behavior.

Question 2

An example of an inverse problem can be found in the field of vision. This involves the problem that three-dimensional images of the physical world are projected as two-dimensional images on our eyes.

Question 3

Bottom-up processing starts with the original sensory input that is gradually transformed into the final representation, in top-down processing there is a permanent connection and feedback between the higher and lower levels of processing.

Question 4

Bayesian decision theory is about the question: 'which event is most likely responsible for my perception'. This question is answered on the basis of three components. The first component is the probability , or all uncertainty in the image (in the case of vision). The second component is the preceding, or all information about the scene before you have seen it. The third component is the decision rule, for example finding the most likely interpretation or selecting a random interpretation.

Question 5

Invariants are properties of a three-dimensional object beig viewed that can be derived from any two-dimensional image of the object. If we know the invariants of objects, we can understand how the bottom-up processing of objects and their functions (direct perception) work.

Question 6

Rods, ventral flow, dorsal flow, cones.

Question 7

The basilar membrane encodes pitch by means of localization. Firing rates in the auditory nerve also count as an indication of pitch.

Question 8

The modality-appropriate hypothesis states that the sense that possesses higher accuracy for a given physical property of the environment will always dominate the bimodal estimation of that property. For example, vision is dominant in spatial tasks. The maximum-likelihood estimation theory, however, states that more reliable perceptual information is weighted more heavily than less reliable perceptual information.

Question 1

It is said that perception is on a continuum between sensation and cognition. What's the meaning of this?

Question 2

Name an example of an inverse problem.

Question 3

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

What are the processes of attention and awareness? - ExamTests 3

Questions

Question 1

Indicate whether these are examples of internal or external attention:

1. your intention to go to the supermarket and also to remember this until you get there,
2. notice that the traffic light is on red,
3. be startled by someone you call while you are studying,
4. keep your attention while studying because you want to finish it for dinner.

Question 2

Answer the following interrelated questions:

1. Describe the approach to attention according to filter theory.

2. What important distinction can be made under filter theories?

Question 3

Describe how the dual task paradigm works. Which theory of attention is based on the findings of this paradigm?

Question 4

Which two functions has attention according to the standardization model of attention?

Question 5

What is the binding problem? Name a theory that offers a solution for this.

Question 6

Connect the following concepts to the correct description:

1. Attentional blink
2. Inattentional blindness
3. Inhibition of return
4. Change blindness

1. The phenomenon that after visual attention has been given to a location in the visual field and the attention is moved thereafter, this location suffers from a delayed response to events.
2. The phenomenon that if we look at a succession of quickly presented visual images, the second of two stimuli can not be identified if it is presented very shortly after the first stimulus.
3. The phenomenon that substantial differences between two almost identical scenes are not observed when presented sequentially.
4. The phenomenon that we can look straight at a stimulus but that we do not really perceive it if we do not focus on it.

Question 7

Explain the difference between the approach of consciousness according to conscious inessentialism and epiphenomenalism.

Answers

Question 1

1. internal attention,
2. external attention,
3. external attention,
4. internal attention.

Question 2

Answers

1. Filter theories assume that a filter in the processing is used to block irrelevant information so that only the relevant information is further processed.

2. An important distinction between filter theories is whether they assume that the filter is used early in the processing, or late in the processing.

Question 3

In the dual task paradigm, performance of participants on two tasks is measured separately wihle they carry out the tasks simultaneously. The amount of interference is measured with different combinations of tasks. The source theory is based on this.

Question 4

The ability to increase sensitivity for weak stimuli as they are presented alone and the ability to reduce the impact of irrelevant distractors when multiple stimuli are presented.

Question 5

The problem that related characteristics are processed separately, but are experienced as one whole. The feature integration theory offers an explanation for integrating the matching features.

Question 6

1. B
2. D
3. A
4. C

Question 7

The conscious inessentialism states that consciousness is not necessary for the actions we perform and therefore does not 'exist'. The epiphenomenalism denies consciousness, but states that it has no function.

Question 1

Indicate whether these are examples of internal or external attention: 1) your intention to go to the supermarket and also to remember this until you get there, 2) notice that the traffic light is on red, 3) be startled by someone you call while you are studying, 4) keep your attention while studying because you want to finish it for dinner.

Question 2

Answer the following interrelated questions:

1. Describe the approach to attention according to filter theory.

2. What important distinction can be made under filter theories?

Question 3

Describe how the dual task paradigm works. Which theory of attention is based on the findings of this paradigm?

What different parts and functions does the memory have? - ExamTests 4

Questions

Question 1

Which two modality-specific storage spaces does the sensory memory consist of? Explain both.

Question 2

Name and describe a factor that negatively affects performance in the shadowing technique.

Question 3

Name two factors that positively influence the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM, and two factors that negatively affect this transfer.

Question 4

Explain how the negative recency effect works. What is the difference to the recency effect?

Question 5

Which of the following three models does the WM see as a subset of the LTM?

1. Cowan's embedded process model

2. Multiple component model

3. Baddeley's working memory model

Question 6

To which model does the term 'phonological loop' belong? Of which two sub-components does this component consist and are their function?

Question 7

Explain how the existence of capture errors provides evidence for the supervisory activating system.

Question 8

What is the added value of the episodic buffer to the Baddeley model?

Answers

Question 1

The iconic storage is the sensory storage space for visual stimuli. The echoic memory is the auditory equivalent to the iconic memory.

Question 2

Backward masking: a masking stimulus is presented near or immediately after the target stimulus. It is then more difficult to repeat the target stimulus.

Question 3

Positive: repeat and elaboration. Negative: decay and replacement.

Question 4

The negative recency effect plays with tasks with multiple item lists. Items at the end of the list are remembered worse, because they are not stored in the LTM. The recency effect plays with tasks with a single item list. Items at the end of the list are then better remembered.

Question 5

a. Cowan's embedded process model

Question 6

Baddeley's working memory model; the phonological loop is the component of the WM that provides temporary storage and manipulation of phonological information. The two sub-components are the phonological repository, where speech-based information is stored for 2-3 seconds, and articulatory control processes that repeat information on a sub-vocal level.

Question 7

According to the supervisory activating system model, there are two types of cognitive control; automatic processes (for routine tasks and well-trained tasks) and a process that can disrupt automatic processing and select an alternative schedule. Capture errors or the failure to deviate from routed actions, shows that there is indeed a separate system for automatic processes.

Question 8

Baddeley's model initially had no room for a STM's own warehouse. The episodic buffer adds this to the model. Moreover, it explains how modality-specific information is integrated.

Question 1

Which two modality-specific storage spaces does the sensory memory consist of? Explain both.

Question 2

Name and describe a factor that negatively affects performance in the shadowing technique.

Question 3

Name two factors that positively influence the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM, and two factors that negatively affect this transfer.

What are the functions and structure of the long-term memory? - ExamTests 5

Questions

Question 1

Patient X is going on holiday with friends in May 2007. In 2009 he has a car accident in which he sustains brain damage. After this accident, he cannot remember anything about the holiday. What type of amnesia is involved? Which syndrome is patient X suffering from?

Question 2

What two components does the LTM consist of according to the multiple memory systems model?

Question 3

Imagine a memory test in which the following question is asked: Which city in North Holland is the capital of Amsterdam? Is this an example of:

1. free recall

2. recognition

3. cued recall

Question 4

What is the main objection to the distinction made by Tulving (1972) between episodic and semantic memory?

Question 5

What is the purpose of the research method 'learning by probabilistic classification'?

Question 6

Explain how schemes can contribute to the emergence of false memories.

Question 7

Imagine that you leave your work every day at 5 o'clock to go home. However, one day you have to leave half an hour earlier to pick up your daughter from school. You forget this, and you go home at 5 o'clock without going to your daughter's school. How is the part of your memory mentioned that fails here?

Question 8

Name a possible cause for maintaining and strengthening false memories.

Answers

Question 1

Anterograde amnesia; amnestic syndrome.

Question 2

The non-declarative or implicit memory refers to memories that we do not consciously pick up, such as how to drive a car. The declarative or explicit memory refers to conscious memories of events, facts, people and places.

Question 3

c. Cued recall

Question 4

It is not always clear when a memory falls under the episodic or semantic memory. For example, autobiographical memories could be placed under both categories.

Question 5

This method is used to examine learned habits. It is often difficult to examine learned habits without the influence of declarative memories. That is why in this method associations are taught that cannot be readily memorized. Learning is therefore based purely on the experience gained during the trials.

Question 6

Schemes are organized remembrance structures that allow us to apply experiences to new situations. The schemes create expectations and can be used to supplement missing information with memories (unconsciously). This missing information is therefore not based on the actual events and false memories can thus be created.

Question 7

The prospective memory, which allows us to keep track of plans and carry out the intended actions.

Question 8

False memories are preserved through imagination inflation: the false memory is repeatedly retrieved and strengthened.

Question 1

Patient X is going on holiday with friends in May 2007. In 2009 he has a car accident in which he sustains brain damage. After this accident, he cannot remember anything about the holiday. What type of amnesia is involved? Which syndrome is patient X suffering from?

Question 2

What two components does the LTM consist of according to the multiple memory systems model?

Question 3

Imagine a memory test in which the following question is asked: Which city in North Holland is the capital of Amsterdam? Is this an example of:

1. free recall

2. recognition

3. cued recall

How does one learn and forget? - ExamTests 6

Questions

Question 1

Why are abstract words more difficult to remember than concrete words according to the dual-coding hypothesis? Explain this using the loci method.

Question 2

Imagine an experiment in which half of the subjects must learn a glossary in upper case, and the other half in lowercase. When testing, the words are presented in lower case. Which principle is being investigated here? Which group of test subjects will perform better in testing?

Question 3

What is meant by context effects? Give an example.

Question 4

What is the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference?

Question 5

Explain the role of long-term potentiation in retrograde facilitation.

Question 6

Name an important limitation of existing memory research. What do we call this problem?

Question 7

Which combination of learning styles appears to work most effectively when studying? Which learning style is not effective?

Answers

Question 1

In the method of loci a known route is proposed and images of the items to be remembered are linked to known places on the route. According to the dual coding hypothesis, the meaning of concrete words can be represented both verbally and visually, while abstract words can only be verbally presented. These are therefore more difficult to remember using memory strategies as the method of loci.

Question 2

The principle of encoding specificity. The group of subjects who have learned the dictionary in lower case will perform better. The principle states that if the context in retrieval is similar to the context of encoding, the memory will work better.

Question 3

Context effects indicate that the memory works better if the external environment during testing is equal to the environment when learning. An example is that retrieval is easier if the words are presented in the open air both during testing and in learning, than when the words are tested outside and during learning.

Question 4

We speak of proactive interference when previous learning impairs later learning, and of retroactive interference as later learning disrupts memory for previously learned material.

Question 5

Long-term potentiation, or the long-term improvement in signal transmission between two neurons resulting from the simultaneous stimulation of these neurons, is an important mechanism in learning and remembering. LTP cannot be generated during inactivity / sleep, so that existing memories are protected by the interference of new memories and thus better remembered. That effect is called retrograde facilitation.

Question 6

Many research on memory can only be applied to everyday situations to a limited extent, and are therefore not representative or generalizable to the real world. We then say that the studies are low in ecological validity.

Question 7

A combination of strategic learning (devising a strategy to learn the minimum for an exam on the basis of which questions are likely to occur) and deep learning (making an effort to understand the material and giving meaning) works best . Superficial learning (without understanding the substance) appears to be ineffective.

Question 1

Why are abstract words more difficult to remember than concrete words according to the dual-coding hypothesis? Explain this using the loci method.

Question 2

Imagine an experiment in which half of the subjects must learn a glossary in upper case, and the other half in lowercase. When testing, the words are presented in lower case. Which principle is being investigated here? Which group of test subjects will perform better in testing?

Question 3

What is meant by context effects? Give an example.

Which representations of knowledge are there? - ExamTests 7

Questions

Question 1

Complete the following text with the correct terms:

According to the prototype approach, people share concepts in ____. _____ is the extent to which an object is representative of the category. Members of the category can also receive scores for the degree to which they resemble each other; we call this the degree of ____. The item that most closely resembles other category members is called ____.

Question 2

Name two disadvantages of the prototype approach.

Question 3

The exemplar theory is an alternative to the prototype approach. What does this theory mean? What is an advantage of this theory compared to the prototype approach?

Question 4

According to the essentialist approach, there are three different concepts; nominal concepts, natural kind concepts and artefact concepts. Indicate the following concepts to which type they belong: rain, book, centimeter, square, horse, computer.

Question 5

What is the difference between amodal and grounded representations?

Question 6

Many researchers assume that mental images work the same way as literal 'pictures' in the brain do. Pylyshyn has a different opinion about this; explain it. Also mention a finding from research that supports his claims.

Question 7

Name an argument and counter argument for the idea that brain areas are identical for perception and imagination.

Answers

Question 1

Categories; typicality, family similarity, prototype.

Question 2

Abstract and ad hoc concepts are difficult to classify based on the prototype approach. It is also difficult to fit the usefulness of clues about knowledge of variability in members' characteristics into the idea of ​​prototypes.

Question 3

The model theory states that categories are represented by saved examples, each of which is linked to the name of the category. This is therefore not a prototype. The advantage of this theory is that it presents variability within a category.

Question 4

Naturally, artifact, nominal, nominal, natural, artifact.

Question 5

Amodal representations are representations that are abstract and do not require sensory codes. The representations could thus be reproduced in a computer program, so to speak, using abstract symbols. Grounded representations do, however, need sensory-motor codes. These are dependent on simulation or re-perception of perceptual, motor and introspective states that have been acquired during experience in the world.

Question 6

Pylyshyn thinks that imagination is only a by-product of underlying cognitive processes, but does not have a functional role in itself. He is therefore convinced of amodal representations as underlying the experience of imagination. Evidence for this claim comes from research into ambiguous figures: this shows that people do have a fixed interpretation of stored mental images. In real pictures, however, they can adjust and change their interpretation.

Question 7

For: Activation of certain areas of the brain, such as the occipital lobe and the early visual cortex, play a role in both perception and imagination. Against: Some people with brain damage have intact visual perception but distorted imagination, and vice versa. If the brain areas involved in both processes were identical, this would be impossible.

Question 1

Complete the following text with the correct terms:

According to the prototype approach, people share concepts in ____. _____ is the extent to which an object is representative of the category. Members of the category can also receive scores for the degree to which they resemble each other; we call this the degree of ____. The item that most closely resembles other category members is called ____.

Question 2

Name two disadvantages of the prototype approach.

Question 3

The exemplar theory is an alternative to the prototype approach. What does this theory mean? What is an advantage of this theory compared to the prototype approach?

What is the motor system? - ExamTests 8

Questions

Question 1

What is meant by the degrees of freedom problem?

Question 2

What is the main drawback of the equilibrium point hypothesis?

Question 3

Describe the role of the forward model within the optimal control theory.

Question 4

Explain how the slip of the tongue phenomenon provides evidence for associative chain theory.

Question 5

Within hierarchical models of action production, recurrent networks provide the temporal aspect and the order of an action sequence. Explain what recurring networks are.

Question 6

The associative chain theory and hierarchical models of action production all follow the idea of ​​the cognitive sandwich. Explain what this means and describe the opposite vision.

Question 7

What is meant by common coding? Which theory does this concept belong to?

Question 8

Name two possible functions of the existence of mirror neurons

Answers

Question 1

Muscles and joints can move in countless different ways. So the question is how to select a certain movement to achieve a certain motor purpose.

Question 2

The equilibrium hypothesis represents each movement as a movement from one stable posture to another. However, this does not explain how we plan and execute more complex movements.

Question 3

The optimal control theory assumes that movements are optimized on the basis of feedback on the extent to which a certain goal is achieved. The forward model ensures that there is no delay in this feedback by making predictions about the relationships between actions and their consequences.

Question 4

The associative chain states that the end of a particular action is associated with stimulating the start of a subsequent action in the sequence. In language production this is presented by associations between words in a sentence. The slip of the tongue phenomenon shows that we sometimes accidentally say a word associated with the word we intended to say.

Question 5

Recurrent networks are neural networks with connections between the units (within an action sequence, e.g. the steps that have to be taken), creating a circle of activation. Patterns of activation and inhibition within the hierarchy work through interactive activation, where the activation of a certain unit causes inhibition of the other units. The first operation thus automatically activates the start of the next step, which activates the step afterwards, etc.

Question 6

The idea of ​​the cognitive sandwich is that cognition is surrounded on the one hand by perception, and on the other by action. The opposite idea is that cognitive representations of action mix with representations of both perception and action.

Question 7

Common coding refers to the theory that states that both production and perception share certain representations of actions. The ideomotor theory, which sees action and perception as closely related, was elaborated within the frame of common coding.

Question 8

On the one hand, mirror neurons and the mechanisms associated with them can be a way of finding out the purpose of the action we perceive. Another possibility is that it is a way to learn through imitation.

Question 1

What is meant by the degrees of freedom problem?

Question 2

What is the main drawback of the equilibrium point hypothesis?

Question 3

Describe the role of the forward model within the optimal control theory.

In what ways are problems solved? - ExamTests 9

Questions

Question 1

Describe solving a Sudoku puzzle in the newspaper using the following terms: ill defined / well-defined, knowledge-rich / knowledge-lean and adversary- / non-adversary problem.

Question 2

Explain how the concepts set and functional fixity can stop gaining insight.

Question 3

Which two subtypes of problem space exist?

Question 4

Connect the right search strategy within a large problem area with the accompanying advantages and disadvantages of that strategy:

1. depth first search,
2. breadth first search,
3. progressive deepening

1. Very intensive, but solution is always achieved
2. Not intensive but solution is not always achieved
3. Is not too intensive under the right circumstances and the goal is guaranteed.

Question 5

Explain why it is plausible to think that there is a fundamental distinction between solving problems that can be solved by looking for a particular representation and insight problems.

Question 6

In which cases is insight most often achieved according to the progress monitoring strategy?

Question 7

What four phases are there in Wallas's four-phase analysis? Which is the most important?

Question 8

Name three factors that promote creative thinking.

Answers

Question 1

Solving a Sudoku puzzle in the newspaper is well defined because you know what the initial situation is and you know what the possible actions are and the ultimate goal. In addition, it is a knowledge-lean problem because it requires little specialized knowledge. Finally, it is a non-adversary problem, because there is no question of a thinking adversary trying to beat your goals.

Question 2

Set is the tendency to linger in a certain approach to a problem, and functional fixity is the difficulty to devise a new function for a familiar object. Both prevent restructuring and thus gaining insight.

Question 3

The state-action-space, or a representation of how a problem can be transformed from the starting state by intermediate states to the goal, and the goal-subgoal-spaces, or a representation of how a problem can be broken up into sub-goals and sub sub goals.

Question 4

1. B
2. A
3. C.

Question 5

Research shows evidence for the idea that solving insight problems requires the special process of restructuring; For example, neurological research shows that different neural processes are active in solving insight problems and non-insight problems.

Question 6

According to the progress monitoring strategy, insight is most often achieved if there is criterion failure (if the progress in searching for a solution is not fast or efficient enough), which is the result of constraint relaxation (loosening the limitations of what must or may be used to come to a solution).

Question 7

The four phases are preparation (becoming familiar with the problem, does not yet lead to a solution), incubation (problem is put aside for a moment), illumination (inspiration / insight, does not lead to a solution) and verification (solution becomes achieved by consciously testing ideas from the illumination). Incubation is crucial here; this is supported by research.

Question 8

1. Being primed with creative subjects.
2. A creative environment (such as a room with a lot of art on the wall).
3. The brainstorming method, in which the production of as many unusual ideas as possible is stimulated.

Question 1

Describe solving a Sudoku puzzle in the newspaper using the following terms: ill defined / well-defined, knowledge-rich / knowledge-lean and adversary- / non-adversary problem.

Question 2

Explain how the concepts set and functional fixity can stop gaining insight.

Question 3

Which two subtypes of problem space exist?

How does one make decisions? - ExamTests 10

Questions

Question 1

People often make decisions that are not based on maximizing the expected value, such as buying lottery tickets or taking out insurance. Name two possible explanations for this type of decision.

Question 2

Explain what the following terms mean within the expectation theory (prospect theory): loss aversion, the endowment effect and the status quo bias.

Question 3

Why is availability heuristic often not an effective way to estimate the frequency of an event?

Question 4

What is the role of the conjunction fallacy in the failure of correctly estimating a frequency on the basis of representativeness heuristics?

Question 5

Name two disadvantages of the theory of multi-attribute-utility.

Question 6

What is the difference between System 1 and System 2 within the two-system approaches to making decisions?

Question 7

Explain why the existence of the omission bias contradicts the consequentialist view.

Question 8

Describe in which situations the theory of multi-attribute-utility is applicable and in which it is not.

Answers

Question 1

A possible explanation for this type of decision is risk aversion (in the case of taking out insurance): the tendency of people to avoid risky choices, even if they offer a higher expected value. Another explanation is risk-seeking (in the case of lottery tickets): the tendency to make risky choices, even if the risk-free alternatives offer a higher expected value.

Question 2

Loss aversion is about avoiding loss, for example, the loss of 10 euros has a more negative utility than the profit of 10 euros has a positive utility. Related to this is the endowment effect: the tendency to overstate an item that you own, and require more money to sell it than to buy it in the first place. The status quo bias is the strong preference for maintaining the current state of affairs and avoiding change.

Question 3

Availability of an event is not only based on frequency, but also on how recently you experienced such an event or what its emotional impact was. This can lead to incorrect probability assessments.

Question 4

The conjunction fallacy is the false assumption that the conjunction of two events (A and B) is more likely than either A or B. This fallacy often causes the representativeness heuristic (in which the frequency of an event is estimated on the basis of how representative or typical it is of his category) to fail.

Question 5

The theory assumes that a decision is made by assigning an objective value to each attribute of a choice option. These values ​​are added to each possible option, after which the highest rated option is selected. A problem hereby is that the relevant dimensions of all choice options are not always known and another problem is that often no objective value can be assigned to the attributes.

Question 6

System 1 ensures fast intuitive thinking and system 2 ensures slow, conscious thinking.

Question 7

The omission bias refers to the fact that negative consequences resulting from the failure to do something (for example not vaccinating your child) are evaluated less negatively than the same consequences of doing something (vaccinating your child). This is in contradiction with consequentialism, which states that decisions are made on the basis of the consequences that are expected to follow from the different choices.

Question 8

In situations with a lot of time pressure the theory often does not apply: people do not weigh all possible options, but choose the option that comes to mind. When it comes to important decisions without time pressure, the theory is more applicable.

Question 1

People often make decisions that are not based on maximizing the expected value, such as buying lottery tickets or taking out insurance. Name two possible explanations for this type of decision.

Question 2

Explain what the following terms mean within the expectation theory (prospect theory): loss aversion, the endowment effect and the status quo bias.

Question 3

Why is availability heuristic often not an effective way to estimate the frequency of an event?

What is inductive and deductive reasoning? - ExamTests 11

Questions

Question 1

In which form of reasoning do propositional reasoning and syllogistic reasoning apply? What is the difference between the two?

Question 2

Connect the examples below with one of the entry rules (modus ponens, modus tollens or double negation).

1. When I get up early, I eat cornflakes for breakfast. I do not eat corn flakes for breakfast, so I did not get up early.
2. It is not not nice weather, so it is nice weather.
3. When I study hard, I get my exam. I study hard, so I get my exam.

Question 3

Is the following incorrect reasoning an example of affiriming the consequent or denying the antecedent? 'If an apple is red, it tastes sweet. This apple tastes sweet, so it is red. "

Question 4

What is meant by the atmosphere effect?

Question 5

Why did Henle, contrary to arguments behind the atmosphere hypothesis and conversion errors, think that people do perform rational reasoning?

Question 6

Give an example of a situation in which the figural bias is involved.

Question 7

Explain how the four-card selection task is used to examine hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Name a factor that affects performance on this task.

Question 8

Explain the relationship between deontic rules and social contract theory.

Answers

Question 1

These are forms of deductive reasoning. In propositional reasoning the statements are connected by logical relations such as 'and', 'or', 'not' and 'if', and in syllogistic reasoning the statements are connected by logical relations such as 'some', 'none' and 'all' .

Question 2

1. Modus tollens
2. Double negation
3. Modus ponens

Question 3

Affirming the consequent.

Question 4

The atmosphere effect is the tendency to draw conclusions in syllogisms that are influenced more by the form of the premises than by the logic of the argument. If, for example, both premises have 'all', people are inclined to accept a conclusion with 'all'.

Question 5

Henle believed that when people come to invalidated conclusions, this is often caused by interpreting the material differently than intended or taking on a different task than asked. The reasoning that followed, however, according to her, was rational.

Question 6

Possible answer: Some women are students. Some students are Dutch. Most people would conclude: some women are Dutch, while the conclusion that some Dutchman are women is equally valid.

Question 7

Here, people are asked to test a rule (for example, if P then Q), by presenting them with four cards with P, Q, not-P and not-Q. On the other side is also P, Q, not-P or not-Q. People have to test the hypothesis by turning over one of the cards. This is an example of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, namely testing a hypothesis on the basis of testing the necessary consequences of the hypothesis. With concrete information on the maps, people perform better than if the information is abstract.

Question 8

Social contract theory suggests that rules that express payment of privilege fees are more easily resolved by people because the correct card choices would reveal cheating (this is an evolutionary mechanism). Research into this theory shows that deontic rules, e.g. rules that relate to duties and terms such as 'must', 'should', etc., are facilitating performance in the four-card selection task.

Question 1

In which form of reasoning do propositional reasoning and syllogistic reasoning apply? What is the difference between the two?

Question 2

Connect the examples below with one of the entry rules (modus ponens, modus tollens or double negation).

1) When I get up early, I eat cornflakes for breakfast. I do not eat corn flakes for breakfast, so I did not get up early.

2) It is not not nice weather, so it is nice weather.

3) When I study hard, I get my exam. I study hard, so I get my exam.

Question 3

Is the following incorrect reasoning an example of affiriming the consequent or denying the antecedent? 'If an apple is red, it tastes sweet. This apple tastes sweet, so it is red. "

What is language production? - ExamTests 12

Questions

Question 1

What is meant when we say that speech production is conceptually driven?

Question 2

Hockett proposed 16 characteristics of human language that distinguishes it from animal communication systems. Which two of the following characteristics does not belong to these 16 characteristics? Specialization, productivity, interdependence, arbitrariness and long-term preservation.

Question 3

Explain how the existence of allophones demonstrates that a phoneme is a subjective category.

Question 4

Connect the correct term with the bold part of the following words: 1) The lid s are on the pans. 2) The lids are on the pans. 3) The lids are on the pans. Terms: free morpheme, function word, bound morpheme.

Question 5

Name the four maxims of effective conversations according to Grice.

Question 6

What is meant by the lexical bias? Name a possible explanation for this phenomenon.

Question 7

What is the main difference between modular and interactive theories of speech production?

Question 8

Explain how results from the dichotic listening task provide evidence for the idea of ​​lateralization of speech.

Answers

Question 1

This means that speech production is a top-down process and is influenced by cognitive processes such as thoughts, beliefs and expectations.

Question 2

Interdependence and long-term preservation (Well: interchangeability and rapid fading).

Question 3

Allophones are different fons (such as the 't' in trumpet or tender) that are seen as the same phoneme. People do not consciously perceive the difference between allophones and automatically place them under the same phoneme, although there is indeed a difference in sound. The distinction between phonemes is thus subjective.

Question 4

1. bound morpheme
2. function word
3. free morpheme.

Question 5

The maxim of quantity (the speaker must provide enough information to be understood, but not too much), the maxim of quality (the speaker must provide accurate information), the maxim of relevance (the speaker must provide relevant information) and the maxim of manner (ambiguity and vagueness must be avoided).

Question 6

The lexical bias refers to the tendency of phonological speech errors to result in real words. This may be caused by the fact that non-words are detected earlier and restored, while mistakes with real words tend to slip past the 'control'.

Question 7

Modular theories state that speech production goes through a series of phases or levels, with little interaction between the different levels. Interactive theories, however, regards speech production as spreading activation in a lexical network. Processing is interactive here, which means that activation of one level can influence processing at other levels.

Question 8

In the dichotic listening task, the participant is presented different stimuli at the same time for each ear. The results of this task show that there is an advantage in verbal stimuli presented to the right ear. This provides evidence for the idea of ​​lateralization (specialization) of speech in the left hemisphere: input in the right ear is mainly processed in the left hemisphere.

Question 1

What is meant when we say that speech production is conceptually driven?

Question 2

Hockett proposed 16 characteristics of human language that distinguishes it from animal communication systems. Which two of the following characteristics does not belong to these 16 characteristics? Specialization, productivity, interdependence, arbitrariness and long-term preservation.

Question 3

Explain how the existence of allophones demonstrates that a phoneme is a subjective category.

Which processes of language comprehension are there? - ExamTests 13

Questions

Question 1

Name two factors that make speech perception more difficult.

Question 2

Which problem does the segmentation problem describe? Name two information sources for segmenting the voice signal.

Question 3

Segmentation of the speech signal is more difficult when listening to lyrics. Explain why this is the case.

Question 4

Suppose you watch a program on TV about fashion. The presenter pronounces the following sentence: This shoe designer is known for his models with high *. Although there is a phoneme missing, you still observe 'high heels'. What do we call this effect?

Question 5

What do the terms 'word initial cohort' and 'uniqueness point' mean within the cohort model?

Question 6

According to the TRACE model, which different sources influence speech perception? What is a disadvantage of this model?

Question 7

Imagine an investigation into lexical access. Condition one tests how easily a common word can be processed. In condition two, associations with a certain word are generated before the lexical access of this word is tested. In condition three, words are searched that follow a word with multiple meanings. Which effects / factors of lexical access are investigated in each condition?

Question 8

What type of script is Dutch? And which type is Chinese?

Question 9

Which three routes for reading represent the dual route model of reading?

Question 10

What is the difference between pure word deafness and pure word meaning deafness?

Answers

Question 1

The speech signal is continuous: there are few clear boundaries between words and consecutive sounds mixing with each other. In addition, factors such as age, gender and speech speed influence the sounds produced by the speaker.

Question 2

The segmentation problem refers to the detection of distinct words in a continuous sequence of speech sounds. An important source of information for segmenting a speech signal are the sound patterns in a language, such as stress and prosody.

Question 3

For lyrics, prosodic information, which is a tool for segmentation, has been reduced. The context also often provides fewer indications for word selection.

Question 4

The phoneme restoration effect.

Question 5

The cohort model assumes a direct and parallel access of speech sounds to the storage of words in the mental lexicon. If we hear the first phoneme of a word, it is therefore already possible to have expectations about the probably intended word. The set of words that are consistent with the initial sounds is called the initial cohort of the word. At that unique point, enough phonemes have been heard to recognize only the intended word.

Question 6

Acoustical information, instructions from other phonemes and the semantic context. A disadvantage of this model is that it overestimates the role of top-down effects.

Question 7

• Condition 1: Frequency effect.
• Condition 2: Priming effects.
• Condition 3: Lexical ambiguity.

Question 8

Dutch is an alphabetical script; Chinese is a logographic script.

Question 9

• Route 1, the grapheme-to-phoneme conversion route, allows the conversion from writing to sounds.
• Route 2, the lexical route, allows reading through word recognition.
• Route 3 goes outside the semantic system and is responsible for cases in which a different word is read correctly even if the meaning is not recognized.

Question 10

Pure word deafness refers to a disorder in which there is a limitation for recognizing speech sounds, but not for non-speech sounds. With pure word meaning deafness, the patient can repeat the word but not understand it.

Question 1

Name two factors that make speech perception more difficult.

Question 2

Which problem does the segmentation problem describe? Name two information sources for segmenting the voice signal.

Question 3

Segmentation of the speech signal is more difficult when listening to lyrics. Explain why this is the case.

What role does emotion play in cognition? - ExamTests 14

Questions

Question1

Research in the field of emotions is dominated by the English language. Give a possible consequence for research results.

Question 2

Which three components characterize emotions according to Clore and Ortony?

Question 3

Explain how evidence for the facial feedback hypothesis supports the James-Lange theory of emotion.

Question 4

Name Cannon's three main criticisms on the James-Lange theory.

Question 5

How did Lazarus argue that cognition and emotion could not be seen separately?

Question 6

Explain how emotion can influence attention processes.

Question 7

Connect the terms 'tunnel memory', 'flashbulb memory' and 'state-dependent memory' to the correct description:

1. Vivid, emotional memory that is often incorrect and more sensitive to bias.
2. The facilitation of memory when the mental or physiological state corresponds to encoding and retrieval.
3. The positive effect of negative emotions on memory for central details of an event and the negative effect on memory for edge details.

Answers

Question 1

In different languages ​​emotions are named differently (for example, different languages ​​refer to different, more or less emotions). Therefore, it is quite possible that research into emotions is influenced by the English language. It is plausible that the six identified basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, grief, joy and surprise) would be different if the research had not been in English.

Question 2

Emotions are characterized by a cognitive component (the appreciation of emotion), a motivational-behavioral component (our actions in response to an emotion), a somatic component (bodily reaction) and a subjective-experience component.

Question 3

The James-Lange theory of emotion states that the experience of an emotion follows the physiological changes associated with that condition. This is supported by the facial-feedback hypothesis: the assumption that feedback from the facial muscles influences the emotional state.

Question 4

Cannon criticized that the same physiological condition can be associated with different emotions: accelerated resin stroke can, for example, be associated with both anger or fear. The same physiological condition can also occur without emotion (for example during physical exertion). Finally, the conscious experience of an emotion happens quickly, while for example visceral changes go slower.

Question 5

Lazarus came up with the theory of valuation. It states that emotions result from our interpretation of events. Cognitive appreciation is thus fundamental to emotional experience and can not be separated from it. This is supported by research.

Question 6

Emotional stimuli attract our attention earlier and for a longer period of time. The emotional Stroop task supports this view: participants are hereby asked to name the color in which a word is written. If a word has emotional value, it keeps attention longer and performance on the task is reduced.

Question 7

• Tunnel memory - 2
• Flashbulb memory - 1
• State-dependent memory - 3

Question1

Research in the field of emotions is dominated by the English language. Give a possible consequence for research results.

Question 2

Which three components characterize emotions according to Clore and Ortony?

Question 3

Explain how evidence for the facial feedback hypothesis supports the James-Lange theory of emotion.