Philosophy of Science: Research approaches to Case Studies

Research approaches to Case Studies

A case study is a reasonable way to answer broad research questions, by providing a detailed understanding of how the process develops in the case. The purpose of social research is to describe and explain social phenomena. A social phenomenon is a way of describing the interactions of people, institutions, governments and states. Social science phenomena studied by case researchers are as different as: collective decision-making; procedures of quality care; selection procedures; election campaigns and effects of restrictions on the policy space of policy makers. Such research can be based on whatever process of social interaction that captures the researcher’s interest.  Social phenomena can be researched from the viewpoint of two different approaches: extensive and intensive. There are other research approaches in between these two types, however the extensive and intensive approach are the most workable and definable approaches for the purposes of this summary.

The extensive vs the intensive approach

Extensive approaches are designed to collect large amounts of information about the instances of a particular phenomenon. The researchers then draw conclusions by calculating together the correlations between the properties of the information. In disciplines such as sociology and political science, extensive approaches are most useful to collect empirical data. By contrast, intensive approaches only focus on one specific instance of the phenomenon to be studied, in order to study that instance in depth. Data is therefore analysed in greater detail under the intensive approach compared to the extensive approach. To summarise, extensive research would make comparisons between units of observation (in width) whereas intensive research would make comparisons within the unit of observation (in depth).

Types of case studies

The term case study can refer to the process of research as well as the end product of research and the origins of the term has its roots in several disciplinary traditions. A case study can be theoretically described as being an intensive study of a single case, or smaller set of cases, with the goal to generalise across a larger set of cases of the same general type. The most important types of case study are those relating to organisations. That is, those case studies relating to marketing, management, human resources and the operation of communication between each of these aspects of the organisation. It must be noted that, at the very start of a case study, the researcher must know of the type of phenomenon that is going to be studied. They must know of the organisation, setting and/or individual that will form the basis of the research. This may be difficult because at the start of research it is normal not to be entirely clear on the spatial ant temporal boundaries of the phenomenon are. The best way to overcome this ambiguity is to pair the phenomenon with its context.

Case studies originate from many different traditions and several labels are used to address various concepts – such as those relating to history, biography, method, report and/or procedure. From social science o behavioural sciences, the character of case studies can rapidly change. For example, in the past, the most dominant form of research was conducted by means of a qualitative, exploratory approach. Whereas now, priority if given to the applied research approach through policy experiments and evaluations. Further, it is common to come across the other recent development in research of blending qualitative and quantitative approaches to come to a final product.

Scientific methods of research usually involve quantitative and hypothetical-deductive methods to formulate the research conclusions. By contrast, research that is solely dedicated to case studies tends to use approaches akin to qualitative and holistic understanding. The label holistic requires researchers to consider the behaviour of all people and social phenomena through the lens of a variety of contexts and causes. Accordingly, simple causation models are inadequate and not holistic. A holistic researcher understands that different perspectives and patterns of research are value-oriented. Under this approach, explanation is based on the pattern of the existing situation – which excludes the explanans (the statements that explain) and the explanandum (the thing to be explained). Holistic research recognises that human beings attach meanings to other people, facts and circumstances and that these meanings differ between persons and are subject to change in the course of the social process.

In general, a case study refers to the study of social phenomenon a) carried out within the boundaries of one or few social systems; b) in the context of the case; c) by monitoring/observing the phenomenon during a specific period; d) that the researcher focuses on the social process to unfold between the participants in the process; e) where the researcher, after time, formulates and is guided by more precise research questions; f) using sources such as available documents, interviews with informants and participatory observation; in which the researcher invites the studied persons to debate on their subjective perspectives, to clear up misunderstandings, overcome cultural clashes and ultimately point everyone in the same direction. The generalised definition of case study is arguably broad – but it still excludes some things worth mentioning. It excludes social surveys, which are conducted under an extensive approach and standard surveys. The definition attributed to the concept of a case study illustrates that they present unique opportunities to focus on social interactions and meanings to participants to between understand each other, and to give them an opportunity to interpret one another’s acts. Though, case studies do not have to include participatory observation as a mandatory requirement. The ultimate aim of any case study is to solve the problem posed by issue in the research question – which may not require the involvement of participants.

In the varying cultures, religions, political ideas and historical ideologies, it is inevitable that people have contrasting views. It is important to gather together these opposing thoughts to come to the most viable solution between them. This is an appropriate way to better understand the history of long standing controversies, taking into account that debates on the accuracy of research results will commonly boil down to a discussion on what research method was used. An effective approach is to ask retrospective questions. Such questions give the observer some insight in what happened in the recent past, or about earlier perceptions of people. Above all, being critical about all the process by which the data was gained, and the end product resulting from that data, is the key to a good case-study researcher’s attitude.