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Succesful interaction with computers results in achieving our goals
We spend more time with our computer than our partner ---> worth investing in a good human computer interaction
We, as humans have limitations, such as not being able to pay attention for too long, having biases etc. We have to take our cognitive abilities into account when we design computers.
In the ACP model, to achieve a goal we either have to change cognition or environemnt. In the case of HCI we aim to change the environment, as it is much more difficult to change human cognition (e.g.: you can't tell someome to just be more flexible, rather change the design so it is easier for the user).
Levels of UX:
1. Utility - is it useful?
2. Usability - can the product be used easily?
3. Desirability - does the product look and feel good?
4. Brand experience - is the overall feeling about product good?
Goal: "It works well and makes me say wow!"
The system conveys information to the user through the display. Can be something you see or hear that indicates a certain information (e.g.: phone beeps when you get a new text).
Graphical User Interterface (GUI): you can draw things with pixels --> easy to shape the digital environment
1. Legibility - e.g.: info conveyed through text should be legible - right color, font, positioning...
2. Absolute judgment - e.g.: only using one property to convey info (e.g. dark green means good, light green means bad ---> can lead to confusion)
3. Top down expectation - e.g.: A I3 C or 12 I3 14
4. Redundancy gain - e.g. traffic lights. We have to use both the position and the color, because it can lead to confusion if e.g. we don't use position (color blind people) or color (difficult to see position from afar)
5. Discriminability: e.g.: icons look too similar to eachother
6. Pictorial realism: e.g.: the higher the volume the higher the indicator is
7. Moving part: e.g.: if you have a moving stick, reverese shouldn't be marked forward
8. Information access: e.g.: you need to put a code into Usis that you can only access through the e-studyguide - bad design
9.Proximity compatibility: e.g.: similar backgrounds indicating similar applications
10. Multiple resources: e.g.: having GPS tell you where to go and also showing it
11. Knowledge in the world: having the options ready and havign to only choose (not having to know by heart)
12. Prediction: e.g.: weather apps let you know what to expect
13. Consistency: it's wise to be consistent with other apps so users learn how to use your app faster
Example: Using a remote control with a button for everything -->knowledge in the world but legibility bad
Alerts:
-Warnings
-Cautions
-Advisories
Labels, icons:
-Visibility
-Discriminability
-Meaningfulness
-Location
Effectiveness - Accuracy and completeness with which users achieve specified tasks
Efficiency - Resources expended in relation to the accuracy and completeness with which users achieve goals
Safety - Avoid danger of carrying out unwanted actions accidently; means of recovery when they happen
Utility - Is it the right functionality?
Learnability - Easy to learn, easy to master
Memorability - Retention over time
1. Initiation: Good idea for new app, should I build this?
-Define it: what is different about the app compared to competitors?
2. Analysis: analyze target,take into account who can pay for it/invest in it
-Check for requirenmnets: interviews etc
3. Design: definining all systems, subsystems, displays etc
- System design phase
4. Implementation
Problem with the model: at the end the software doesn't fit the needs of it's environmnet etc...
Improvement: repeated evalutation
1. Forming the goal - I want to eat
2. Forming the intention - I will get something from the vending machine
3. Specifying the action - Outline steps needed for getting food from the machine
4. Executing the action - Selecting item and paying
5. Perceiving the state of the world - Has anything changed? Item fell from its place.
6. Interpreting the state of the world - The food is ready to be taken from the machine
7. Evaluating the outcome - I will get the item I payed for and eat
Match real world
Consistency and standards
Visibility of system status
User control and freedom
Error prevention, recovery
Memory
Flexibility, efficiency
Simplicity and aesthetics
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• Education
- e.g.: how can we enhance memory?
• Work place
-e.g.: should employees be allowed to nap at work?
• Industry
-e.g.: how can we prevent human errors in the industry?
• Transportation
-e.g.: how can we design the cockpit to decrease pilot error?
• Military
-e.g.: how can drugs and food influence endurance in battle?
• Justice
-e.g.:how can we evaluate the accuracy of witness statements in court?
• Care and cure
-e.g.: how can we motivate patients to take their medicine?
• Health
-e.g.:how can meditation influence our mental and physical fitness?
• Leisure
-e.g.: how can certain foods enhance our sports performance?
Outcome = Cognition x Environment
Cognition: memory, attention, flexibility, inhibition, motivation, enjoyment…
Environment: organization, product, website, tools…
Factors: variables to manipulate
– change environment (design, lay-out, responsiveness)
-change cognition (brain training games, operating instructions, situational awareness)
Goal of ACP: Provide practical solutions based on theoretical knowledge of cognitive psychology
Any type of sensory information
Most of the information first comes in to the Thalamus, and then spreads e.g. visual cortex, primary sensory cortex...
For ACP: we are interested in only some low-level perceptual phenomena: hering grid, motion-after-effect, color-after-effect
Bottom-up driven processes drive our perception in an automatic way.
Top-down processing drives our perception through expectancies. Example: A I3 C or I2 I3 I4
If the information quality goes down, then the top-down influence increases
Broadbent’s Attentional Filter: Early selection on attended channel and physical properties (pitch, color, loudness). But: there must be some semantic processing left.
-Example: dichotic listening task ---> while people cannot recall what they heard, it still influences their actions
According to William James, attention is similar to consciousness, it implies concentrating on one thing.
Overt attention: Any kind of physical change that follows our attention - e.g. head turn
Covert attention: The focus of our attention changes without any phyisical change (Posner) - even if eye is centered in one place, we can focus on other things.
Endogenous attention: conscious, controlled effort (top-down)
Exogenous attention: automatic, e.g.: someone sneezes in the exam room and you automatically pay attention to it
Feauture integration process: Different feautures of an object are processed in different parts of the brain. When target and distractor differ in only one feauture, it is easier to notice.
Pop-out: target is seen automatially - e.g. green circle amongst pink circles
Conjunction: more difficult to note - e.g.: search for orange square amongst blue squares and orange triangles
Disadvantage to things becoming automatic: difficult to deal with unexpected situations
Limited capacity,limited duration
Primacy: you will remember better the first couple of letters in a sequence
Recency: you will remember better the last couple of letters in a sequence
Chuncking: Chuncking into information that makes sense to us so we remember it better.
Example: PASAAICIBF ---> FBI CIA ASAP
Interference: More difficult when two informations interfere with eachother. Example: Stroop task
There's 3 parts to working memory:
1. Central Executive: Manages Visuospatial sketchpad and Phonological loop
2: Visuospatial sketchpad: we interact with visual information
- Maintain and manipulate visual information
- Spatial insight, mental rotation
3. Phonological loop
-capacity of the phonological loop is fixed amount (duration) of speech sounds ~ 2.5 seconds
- articulatory loop: worse recall if articulation of words is suppressed by counting aloud.
-phonological store: similarity effect – letters that sound similar (BDPGV) are more difficult to retain than letters with distinctive sounds (BFHXR)
3
.....read moreSuccesful interaction with computers results in achieving our goals
We spend more time with our computer than our partner ---> worth investing in a good human computer interaction
We, as humans have limitations, such as not being able to pay attention for too long, having biases etc. We have to take our cognitive abilities into account when we design computers.
In the ACP model, to achieve a goal we either have to change cognition or environemnt. In the case of HCI we aim to change the environment, as it is much more difficult to change human cognition (e.g.: you can't tell someome to just be more flexible, rather change the design so it is easier for the user).
Levels of UX:
1. Utility - is it useful?
2. Usability - can the product be used easily?
3. Desirability - does the product look and feel good?
4. Brand experience - is the overall feeling about product good?
Goal: "It works well and makes me say wow!"
The system conveys information to the user through the display. Can be something you see or hear that indicates a certain information (e.g.: phone beeps when you get a new text).
Graphical User Interterface (GUI): you can draw things with pixels --> easy to shape the digital environment
1. Legibility - e.g.: info conveyed through text should be legible - right color, font, positioning...
2. Absolute judgment - e.g.: only using one property to convey info (e.g. dark green means good, light green means bad ---> can lead to confusion)
3. Top down expectation - e.g.: A I3 C or 12 I3 14
4. Redundancy gain - e.g. traffic lights. We have to use both the position and the color, because it can lead to confusion if e.g. we don't use position (color blind people) or color (difficult to see position from afar)
5. Discriminability: e.g.: icons look too similar to eachother
6. Pictorial realism: e.g.: the higher the volume the higher the indicator is
7. Moving part: e.g.: if you have a moving stick, reverese shouldn't be marked forward
8. Information access: e.g.: you need to put a code into Usis that you can only access through the e-studyguide - bad design
9.Proximity compatibility: e.g.: similar backgrounds indicating similar applications
10. Multiple resources: e.g.: having GPS tell you where to go and also showing it
11. Knowledge in the world: having the options ready and havign to only choose (not having to know by heart)
12. Prediction: e.g.: weather apps let you know what to expect
13. Consistency: it's wise to be consistent with other apps so users learn how to use your app faster
.....read more
While in the past being hurt was seen as a "personality trait", it turned out that there is no difference in proneness to injury.
It is often difficult to judge a situation to be safe or not.
2 systems for processing information
System 1 always gives an immediate reaction, this is ‘uncontrollable’.
System 2 has to be activated
Unfortunately this reaction is not always good. Estimates of probability and impact are strongly influenced by:
Example: 9/11 very salient, but actually much more people died in car accidents that week.
Example: While hurricane Maria got little media coverage, it was more destructive than hurricane Harvey.
Example: the public outrage for a gun crime is much higher than the actual hazard
Not-intentional behavior:
Intentional behaviour
Significant jump in risk of error after 8 hours of working
Risk of mistake is more than double after 90 minutes after break compared to 30 minutes
Fixation on expected solutions
Confuse new problems with old problems with known solutions
Who violates?
‘Human error’ research looked at individual behaviour and ways to ‘fix it’
Reason and Rasmussen caused a revolution in the 1980s when they categorised human error and related the categories to organisational issues
The success has been staggering in the areas where it has been applied: up to 96% less accidents
Recent developments: look at human error from a ‘complexity’ point of view
At the moment there are few practical applications, but it has potential
60% americans play video games (~90% between ages of 2 and 17)
Potential: people already spend a lot of time gaming
- there could be benefits: training, simulation, increase behavior, increase motivation...
Different categories of games:
Serious games: skills and knowledge based
- e.g.: simulator games --> pilots taught to fly
Gamification: use of gaming elements in non-games
- e.g.: Wii Fit -- fitness exercise but it's almost like a game.
-e.g.2: Ticket vending machine in Moscow that gives a ticket if you do ten squats in front of the machine
Gaming elements:
-Reward system
-Adaptivity
- Social factors
-Context
Cognitive enhancement: can videogames enhance cognitive functioning?
Two types of games that can enhance cognitive functioning
Cognitive training: use it or lose it!
-Train working memory --> N-back Task
Experimental condition: Pre-test – Training – Post-test
Control condition: Pre-test --> training
.....read more-Source of energy
-Maintain cognitive function
-Adapting for food acquisition has affected evolution of the modern brain and cognitive skills
-Omega 3 linked to brain development
-Fish based diet decreased, saturated/trans fatty acids increase --> depression also increases
-Gut bacteria can influence mood, prevent depression
Acetycholine (Ach):
-involved in muscle action, memory and attention
-Malfunction: associated with AD
Dopamine (DA):
-Movement, learning, attention, emotion. Mediates effects of natural rewards and drugs
-Malfunction: Reduced – Parkinson’s, ADHD, Excess – Schizophrenia
Seratonin:
-Affects mood, hunger, sleep, arousal, and social behavior
-Malfunction: low – depression, high - autism
Norepinephrine:
-Helps control mood, alertness, and arousal
-Malfunction: low- depression, high – anxiety
GABA:
-Major inhibitory neurotransmitter
-Malfunction: low – Huntington’s disease and personality changes, high – sleeping and eating disorders
Glutamate:
-Major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory formation
-Malfunction: low – depression, schizophrenia, high – migraines, seizures
Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic cell into the synapse, to be absorbed in the postsynaptic cell
Some drugs block the release of neurotransmitters:
-Botulinium toxin (Ach) --> muscle paralysis (like botox)
-Clozapine in Schizophrenia --> to decrease dopamine
Reuptake by axon terminals or glial cells for reuse: released dopamine gets reabsorbed
-Cocaine and Speed delay reuptake of Norepinephrine ( more pleasure)
-Anti-depressants (Prozac) block reuptake of Serotonin
-Lithium speeds reuptake (increases depression)
Neurotransmitters deactivated by enzymes:
-Nerve gas (VX) destroys AChE
-COMT-gene encodes an enzyme that destroys DA in the pre-frontal cortex
Neurotransmitters can also be diffused via blood
-Low: Poor performance – Parkinson’s disease, ADHD
-Moderate: Maximum performance
-High: Poor performance – Schizophrenia, drug overdosing
-Optimise baseline by either CNS stimulants (e.g.coffee) or depressants (e.g. alcohol) or both
-Effects of a drug depends on the dose and baseline DA levels
High listening span: higher activity of caudate and plutamen (in Basal ganglia)
-Enzymes in the COMT gene inactivate released dopamine, thereby regulating its flux in the PFC
-COMT knockout mice show increased DA in the PFC and COMT inhibitors shows to improve WM in humans
-COMT gene has 2 alleles: Val-Val, Val-Met, Met-Met
-->e.g.: we get Val from our mother, Met from our father (rare genotype)
Val amino acid: Fast DA degradation (“warriors”)
Met: Slow DA degradation (“worriers”)
Wisconsin card sorting test and N-Back tasks:
Effect of amphetamine on participants who do the tasks:
N-back task:
-Val allele people: Because of amphetamine, their performance increases – maximum performance – Less
.....read more1. Facts
2. Evidence
3. Guilt
4. Verdict/sentence
The psychologist looks at the facts and analyzes to what extent the facts are reliable and can be considered as evidence.
A psychologist cannot tell whether someone is or isn't guiltly
1.There is an allegation, or a suspicion of guilt.
2.The prosecutor looks for facts, interrogates people.
3. Police looks at facts, psychologist can help here.
4. Prosecutor goes to the judge with evidence.
5. Judge decides with the jury whether suspect is guilty. The defense talks to the judge also
6. The psychologist can communicate with the prosecutor, the police,and the defense.
7. Decision of guilt
2 types of error possible:
1. Jury decides suspect is guilty, while they aren't
2. Jury decides suspect is not guilty, while they are
Decide which type of error is worse.
Assumption of innocence: avoiding the 1st error.
- have to have enough evidence to prosecute someone
Misinformation effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's own memory of an event
Example: "How fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?" vs "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?"
Post-information
Example: Adding "he died later that day" after seeing a man being pushed will lead to a different judgement than not knowing that information.
People can be biased to think the perpetrator must be in the line-up, which psychologist try to avoid by making sure witnesses know that perpetrator might not be there
The portraits should fit the description
The crime scene should be simulated: go to the scene, and based on what the witness said try to redo the situation
Line-ups should be done quickly after the incident
Double aging: more old people and increase in life expectancy
Health care cost NL – 15.4% of GDP
2013: 27% are 65+, 2040: 51% will be 65+
Healthcare costs are cut, but there’s an increasing number of people needing care
Solution: stay at home, family has to take care of you
-more responsibility for vulnerable group, lack of knowledge and tools
Proper solution:
Sensory perception – Cognition – Motoric action
Pupil size gets smaller, clarity goes down, needs 3x the light as a young person
Focus speed and movement speed of lens & muscles goes down, worse near focus
Retina: peripheral view gets worse
Trouble in traffic: night blindness, motion perception ,depth perception
Hardening of membranes and eardrums
-3D perception
-High tones (voices/words)
Consequences:
-Social isolation
-Bad orientation
-Problems in traffic
Can't smell as well ---> more likely to eat spoiled food
Can't taste as well --->bad appetite
Worse balance -->fall over
Proprioception goes down -->accidents
Less sensitive to touch --> might not notice dangerous heat
Leg strength decreases
Aerobe muscles decreases (muscles that use oxygen to perform)
Grip sense decreases
(Leiden Academy of Aging – they have aging suits! - experience what it's like to be old)
Neuro-muscular degeneration:
-Dopamine in CNS goes down
-Tremours
-Posture: slow correction
-Motor process speed
-Fine motor control
-Speech control
-Parkinsons – so little dopamine that movement becomes difficult
Conjunctive attention, divided attention and sustained attention goes down
Switching, inhibition, updating goes down
Routine and fixed rules improve
Prospective memory (planning to perform action later on) goes down
PFC:
-Gray Matter (neuron bodies & dendrites) goes down
-White matter volume also decreases
-Old people use more of their PFC than young people, because they need to use more brain power to do the same task
Compensation:
-In old age people have more positive mood (a way to get more dopamine)
Episodic, spatial and working memory decreases
Hippocampus volume goes down – seems that higher education decreases less
Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults (HAROLD): old people
.....read more
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