Hoe je dit kan lezen:
Zwart: informatie of vragen vanuit de 'reading guide'
Blauw: mijn uitwerkingen op de vragen
Rood: aanvullingen op mijn uitwerkingen n.a.v. de werkgroep

Harkness, S., Super, C.M., & van Tijen, N. (2000). Individualism and the "Western mind" reconsidered: American and Dutch parents' ethnotheories of the child. In S. Harkness, C. Raeff & C.M. Super (Eds.), Variability in the social construction of the child. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 87, 23-39.

Super and Harkness present their research on parental etnoheories, one of the settings of the developmental niche, using interviews with parents from a town in the Netherlands an a town in the United states. This article could be inspiration for your own paper. You can read how Super and Harkness reach the conclusion by analysing interviews. Particularly interesting is their conclusion about how Dutch and American parents describe dependence and independence in a similar and different way (see page 36/37). This conclusion will be discussed in the seminar. What are the implications of this conclusion for the way we should look at Kağıtçıbaşı’s model? And for the way we should look at the ‘Western mind’?

1. What is the main question?

In this chapter, we challenge the idea of a unitary “Western mind” and reexamine the constructs of individualism and sociocentrism through an analysis of parents’ cultural models of the child in two Western, socioeconomically similar populations: one in the United States and the other in the Netherlands.

2. In what way is the question answered?

Using parents’ descriptions of their own children as evidence for implicit cultural models of “the child,” we find patterns of similarity and difference between the two groups that belie both the assumed homogeneity of the “Western mind“ and the integrity of individualism and sociocentrism as cross-cultural dimensions of contrast. The ways that parents in both the U.S. and Dutch communities describe and comment on their own children, we find, require a new conceptualization of the individual in social context, which we discuss at the end of the chapter.

3. Which theories and key concepts are described?

parental ethnotheories-cultural belief systems that parents hold regarding the nature of children, development, parenting, and the family

The idea of a distinctive “Western mind” as opposed to its non-Western counterpart is very close to the contrasting constructs of individualism or independence versus sociocentrism, collectivism, or interdependence.

individualism and sociocentrism

autonomous relational self: She suggests that, in contrast to this confounding of two logically separate dimensions, in some societies (notably those in transition from traditional to individualistic family lifestyles) there is a “dialectical synthesis” involving close emotional relationships but allowing for individual agency. According to this interpretation, the “autonomous relational self” not only is adaptive in certain socioeconomic situations but also provides a healthier solution to the basic human need for both connectedness and agency than do prevailing Western psychological theories.

4. What are the main results and or conclusions?

According to this interpretation, the “autonomous relational self” not only is adaptive in certain socioeconomic situations but also provides a healthier solution to the basic human need for both connectedness and agency than do prevailing Western psychological theories. Although Kagitcibasi draws her examples of the autonomous relational self from outside the Western world, her conceptualization corresponds remarkably closely to the differences observed in the ways that the Cambridge and Bloemenheim parents talked about dependence and independence in their children both dependence and independence has to do with separation.
With the idea of the autonomous relational self in mind, we can more easily make sense of the other differences between Cambridge and Bloemenheim parents’ descriptions that appear anomalous in the framework of individualism versus collectivism. Attribution of obedience to children is rare in both samples, although manageability and cooperativeness are definitely issues. The low profile for obedience in these settings reflects the fact that neither is a traditional society in which obedience and respect are highlighted.

Although Kagitcibasi’s conceptualization of the autonomous relational self appears to correspond well to the Bloemenheim parents’ cultural model of the child as expressed in their descriptions of their own children, it is notable that Kagitcibasi also assumes that such a model can be found only outside Western societies. Are we to imagine, then, that Dutch communities such as Bloemenheim are rare deviants from an otherwise hegemonic “Western mind”? Only further research within the broad bounds of Western culture can answer this question. It seems likely, however, that such research will show that there is not one “Western mind” but many culturally structured ways of conceptualizing the self, and thus of thinking about children and the family.

5. How is the article related to the theme of the week? The theme of the course? To lectures and other articles?
   The theme of this week is parenting support. This article relates to that as it discussees parental ehtnotheories. It relates to cultural diversity as it discusses differences in these views.  It relates tot he article about the developmental niche, as it is about parental athnotheories, which are part of the developmental niche.

Western mind bestaat niet echt, maar cultureel gestructureerde manieren waarop gedacht wordt over de ‘zelf’.

Docent: geen universele western mind. Zelfs in westerse landen al enorme verschillen, niet eens over construct/concept (independence/dependence) maar hoe ouders daartegenaan kijken. Kinderen scoren veel hoger op tevredenheid in NL dan in Amerika. Dat kan je linken aan opvoeding strategieën in dit artikel. Amerikanen keken negatiever ernaar. Conflict intern voor kinderen of ouders.

Cambrigde ouders zetten in op cognitieve resultaten, terwijl in NL meer gedijen in omgeving en sociale contacten.

Van Mourik, K. Crone, M. R., Pels, T. V. M., & Reis, R. (2016). Parents’ belief about the cause of parenting problems and the relevance of parenting support: Understanding low participation of ethnic minority and low socioeconomic status families in the Netherlands. Children and Youth Services Review, 61, 345-352. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.12.028

Van Mourik and others and Yaman and others. You can use the model of the summary, presented in the reading guide of the first week. You don’t need to know the method section by heart, focus on introduction and results of the study, as presented in discussion.

1. What is the main question?

Objectives: To provide in-depth understanding of parents' beliefs about the causes of parenting problems, and the perceived relevance of parenting support in a sample of ethnic minority and low socioeconomic status (SES) families.

Overtuigingen van ouders over opvoedingsproblemen en hoe daarmee omgaan

2. In what way is the question answered?

Methods: Cross-comparative analyses were performed on qualitative data from 61 parents (age child: 0–15 years) of two ethnic minority groups (Antillean-Dutch and Moroccan-Dutch) and one ethnic majority group (native Dutch) in the Netherlands. Methodology included in-depth qualitative interviews followed by focus groups. Atlas.ti software was used to manage and analyse data inductively

Semi gestructureerd interview en focusgroepen.

3. Which theories and key concepts are described?

Keywords:
Parenting
Ethnicity
Parenting support: Parenting support is defined as individual or group-based programmes for supporting parents in rearing their children, provided by formal services for family support or by non- or semi-formal support services
Child development
Participation
Motivation

4. What are the main results and or conclusions?

Results: Parenting support was perceived to be less relevant if parents related the cause of parenting problems to stress and external factors. Low-SES and ethnic minority parents more often emphasised unfavourable living conditions and living in two cultures as causes for parenting problems. Parents considered parenting support most relevant during periods of rapid change in their children, or in their parenting role. Conclusion: Results indicate that beliefs regarding the cause and controllability of problems are important to understand parents' motivation to participate in parenting support. Notable differences were found regarding the period during the child's life that parenting support was perceived as most relevant. Motivation to participate was higher during various stages of transition, which ranged from the transition to parenthood, to toddlerhood, the age of seven, and adolescence.
Conclusions The aim of this study was to provide an in-depth understanding of parents' beliefs on parenting problems, and the perceived relevance of parenting support in a sample of ethnic minority and low-SES families. Beliefs regarding the cause and controllability of problems are important to understand parents' motivation to participate in parenting support. The results indicate that ethnic minority and low-SES parents often attribute parenting problems to external family factors and stress (full events). Native Dutch parents more often perceived their children's personalities to be the most important cause of the problems. Parents considered parenting support to be more relevant in periods of rapid change in their children or in their parenting role. Motivation to participate was higher during stages of transition, which ranged from the transition to parenthood, to toddlerhood, the age of seven years, and adolescence. Parents are often asked to be active participants in parenting support, based on the premise that parenting practises are a moderator for desirable changes in the child behaviour (Lundahl, Risser, & Lovejoy, 2006). Therefore, parents' beliefs about the aetiology of parenting problems are important to better understand and potentially influence their motivation to participate in parenting support.

5. How is the article related to the theme of the week? The theme of the course? To lectures and other articles?

The theme of this week is parenting support. This articles researches the relevance of parental support in parenting problems. Its related to cultural diversity as a native and minority groups are investigated. [Parents' beliefs are associated with the social and cultural context in which people live, as well as their ethnic and migrant background]

Of je denkt dat het effect heeft is ook wel belangrijke reden voor ouders. Bijv. als economisch slecht zoeken ze misschien niet zo snel hulp.
lees bij dit artikel goed de implicaties! Wat zijn dingen waar je rekening mee moet houden? Dan kan je ook denken aan artikel Spark en Beurden: kijk naar context, kijk naar waar ouders echt mee zitten en dat is de startpunt van zo’n programma.

van Beurden SL, de Haan M, Jongmans MJ. How Moroccan‐Dutch parents learn in communities of practice: Evaluating a bottom‐up parenting programme. Child & Family Social Work. 2019;24:283–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12613

Van Beurden. In this article the authors present the parenting Program “Youth of Today” as an illustration of a bottom up program. What is ment by a bottom up program and how does it differ from the more often used top down approach? How is the bottom up procedure implemented in the YoT program? What are the advantages of such an approach?

1. What is the main question?

Research shows that top‐down‐designed parenting programmes do not always meet the needs of postmigration parents. Bottom‐up programmes by migrant organizations hold a promise to fill this gap; however, research about these programmes and appropriate evaluation methodologies is scarce. Drawing upon Wenger's (2010) “communities of practice,” this paper explores an alternative perspective on parenting programme evaluation.

2. In what way is the question answered?

Findings are presented from a study looking into social learning processes of postmigration parents who participated in a bottom‐up programme about raising teenagers in urban areas. Using an ethnographically inspired method combined with a preprogramme and postprogramme design, 115 Moroccan‐Dutch mothers and fathers from 15 programme groups participated.

Following our theoretical framework, we specifically aim to explore how these parents form CoPs with each other by questioning (a) if and how they engage in social learning spaces concerned with the practice of parenting and (b) if and how they develop a sense of learning citizenship within these spaces.

3. Which theories and key concepts are described?

Keywords:
bottom‐up parenting programme: aanmoedigen van participatieve, op macroniveau

communities of practice

evaluation study

migration

social network
Wengers theory: expliciete aandacht voor collectief leren. Mate waarin mensen openstaan en geneigd zijn om van elkaar te leren.
dual realignment: vaardigheden van anderen overnemen
mate waarin mensen open en geneigd zijn van anderen te leren en verantwoordelijkheid te nemen

4. What are the main results and or conclusions?

Results show that the programme provided a social learning space in which parents used themselves as resources to learn collectively about parenting. Moreover, parents consciously engaged in learning interactions across learning spaces stretched into their social networks. These analyses showed how parents' development of “learning citizenship” (Wenger, 2009) provides us with insight in collective learning dimensions present in a bottom‐up parenting programme, which is often not included in evaluation studies. Implications for practitioners as facilitators of parents' collective learning are presented.

1. zichzelf gebruiken als hulprobnnen
2 zichzelf en anderen gebruiken als leerbronnen buiten hulpporgamma

3. erkennen individuele leerambities

4. erkennen collectieve leerambities

Dus ze proberen zvm van elkaar te leren. Het werkt fijn. Bovendien latne bevindingen zien hoe bewust ouders omgaanmet peer to peer interacties. Ook buiten programma meegenomen. Gevoel van lerend burgerschap te formeren.

5. How is the article related to the theme of the week? The theme of the course? To lectures and other articles?

The theme of this week is parenting support. This article discusses in what way parents can learn from each other in collective learning settings about parenting. Its related to cultural diversity as this ‘learning citizenship’ ‘becomes particularly important in contexts of cultural transition, diversity, and social change’.

Ouders met migratieachtergrond, parenting support in migration context. Hier bottom up approach, dan oog voor collectief leren en lerend burgerschap.

Docent: die bottom up approach blijkt hele goede aanpak te zijn zeker voor migranten ouders omdat ze kunnen leren van sociale processen. Staat tegenover top down approach en die is wel meest gebruikt. Waarom zou je kiezen voor top down/bottom up approach? Behoeften van degenen die aan bottom up meedoen worden echt vertaald. Eventuele nadelen: bij top down is dit interventie en dit doelen. Bij bottum up kans dat dingen aan het licht komen die je van tevoren niet had bedacht en dat je daar andere doelen uithaalt voor programma. Maar aangezien beleidsmakers ook echt denken aan kosten en efficiëntie, top down kost minder. Kan over grote groep ingezet worden i.p.v. selecte groep.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The Cultural Nature of Human Development. Oxford University Press. Chapter 4, pp. 102-120. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uunl/detail.action?docID=272865

Rogoff. This is the first part of a chapter of the book ‘The cultural nature of human development’ Rogoff shows how parenting goals depend on context and she describes how attachment, sometimes regarded as innate and universal, differs with context. The hierarchy of Levine, research of ScheperHughes and the way attachment is researched with the strange situation experiment will be discussed during seminar 3B

1. What is the main question?

This chapter next addresses cultural strategies for dealing with issues of child survival and care, a central issue often overlooked in affluent times. Then it turns to cultural variations in infants’ relations with their caregivers and varying role specializations in responsibility for the care of children by families and communities. Finally, the chapter examines children’s involvement in the mature activities of their communities and the integration of children in groups or one-on-one engagements.

2. In what way is the question answered?

Giving examples of different communities

3. Which theories and key concepts are described?

• Onthechting = geen aandacht, zorg of bescherming bieden voor het kind als het zwak is en waarschijnlijk niet zal overleven. Selectieve verwaarlozing.  

• Strange situation experiment = een laboratoriumexperiment waarbij ouders hun kind moeten verlaten en weer met hen te herenigen. Wetenschappers kunnen hieruit afleiden hoe het kind gehecht is aan de moeder.  

• Veilige hechting = exploratie bij aanwezigheid van moeder, lichte paniek bij vertrek van moeder en troost bij hereniging met moeder.  

• Ambivalente hechting = veel stress bij afwezigheid van moeder en inconsistent gedrag bij hereniging (woede/nabijheid zoeken).  

• Vermijdende hechting = weinig stress bij afwezigheid van moeder en vermijding van moeder bij hereniging.  

• Extended family = grootfamilie. Een bredere kring van samenlevende familie, waaronder grootouders, ooms, tantes, etc.  

• Hiërarchie van LeVine = drie opvoeddoelen die verschillen per cultuur. Als het eerste doel gerealiseerd is, wordt het tweede doel pas belangrijk en zo door.  

4. What are the main results and or conclusions?

The cast of characters and scenarios of child rearing, along with cultural prototypes of the structure of relationships, are closely involved in children’s development. Attachment between infants and family members is related to issues of survival, cultural values regarding relationships, and community arrangements regarding families. Who else is available relates to how family and community specialize in caregiving, companionship, and instructional roles. Community arrangements contribute in important ways to children’s opportunities to learn the mature ways of their community from observing and joining in with their elders. If young children cannot enter community activities, adults may design specialized child-focused settings for them, such as schooling and the kind of adult-child interactions that often characterize middle-class parenting. Adult-child play, lessons, and child-focused conversations seem to be a specific cultural solution to providing children with preparation for later mature contributions, while segregating them from participation during childhood. Whether interaction in groups is structured in successive one-to-one engagement or in fluid multiparty engagement seems to vary with cultural emphasis on children’s broad participation in the community and to connect with the cultural institution of Western schooling.

5. How is the article related to the theme of the week? The theme of the course? To lectures and other articles?

The theme of this week is parenting support. cultural diversity because ‘The cast of characters and scenarios of child rearing, along with cultural prototypes of the structure of relationships, are closely involved in children’s development’

Wat is de onderzoeksvraag? 

• Hoe hangen opvoeddoelen af van verschillende culturele contexten?  
• Hoe verschilt hechting per cultuur?  

Op welke manier wordt deze beantwoord? 

 Literatuuronderzoek. Dit is een hoofdstuk uit een boek over cultuur in de ontwikkeling van mensen. Dit hoofdstuk gaat specifiek over de opvoeding van kinderen in deze gezinnen. Er wordt gebruik gemaakt van literatuur en onderzoeken die er al zijn.  

Welke theorieën en concepten worden besproken?  

• Onthechting = geen aandacht, zorg of bescherming bieden voor het kind als het zwak is en waarschijnlijk niet zal overleven. Selectieve verwaarlozing.  
• Strange situation experiment = een laboratoriumexperiment waarbij ouders hun kind moeten verlaten en weer met hen te herenigen. Wetenschappers kunnen hieruit afleiden hoe het kind gehecht is aan de moeder.  

• Veilige hechting = exploratie bij aanwezigheid van moeder, lichte paniek bij vertrek van moeder en troost bij hereniging met moeder.  
• Ambivalente hechting = veel stress bij afwezigheid van moeder en inconsistent gedrag bij hereniging (woede/nabijheid zoeken).  
• Vermijdende hechting = weinig stress bij afwezigheid van moeder en vermijding van moeder bij hereniging.  

• Extended family = grootfamilie. Een bredere kring van samenlevende familie, waaronder grootouders, ooms, tantes, etc.  
• Hiërarchie van LeVine = drie opvoeddoelen die verschillen per cultuur. Als het eerste doel gerealiseerd is, wordt het tweede doel pas belangrijk en zo door.  

Wat zijn de belangrijkste resultaten of conclusies?  

De overheid heeft grote invloed op de grootte/samenstelling van gezinnen door grote gezinnen te stimuleren of juist te ontmoedigen. Dit kan politieke of economische redenen hebben om het land te laten groeien of te stabiliseren. Deze invloeden van de overheid zijn nauw gerelateerd aan culturele praktijken rond de opvoeding en individuele ontwikkeling van kinderen. 

Hiërarchie van LeVine:  

1. Fysieke overleving en gezondheid van het kind.  

2. Economische zekerheid voor het kind bij volwassenheid.  

3. Kansen van het kind; culturele waarden, zoals status, maximaliseren. 

 In landen met een hoge kindersterfte is vooral het eerste punt belangrijk. Als de kindersterfte minder is, hebben ouders meer de andere doelen voor ogen in de opvoeding. Hechting bij kinderen.   

• Observaties van Scheper-Hughes in een krottenwijk in Brazilië. Als moeders dachten dat het kind te zwak zou zijn om te overleven, was er sprake van onthechting. De selectieve verwaarlozing en onthechting zijn normaal in culturen waar de kindersterfte hoog is. Hechting is dus niet aangeboren zoals altijd gedacht werd, maar ook de context speelt hierin een rol.  
• Strange Situation Experiment – veiligheid van de hechting. De meeste Amerikaanse kinderen zijn volgens dit experiment veilig gehecht; daarom lijkt dit het ideaal. In andere culturen zijn er echter andere patronen te zien. Deze patronen weerspiegelen culturele waarden en praktijken. Vb. vermijdende hechting in Duitsland – nadruk ligt meer op vroege onafhankelijkheid. Ambivalente hechting in Japan – kinderen zijn niet gewend aan vreemde mensen. Kinderen hechten zich dus niet zomaar aan specifieke personen, maar ook de specifieke context speelt een rol. - 

• Aan wie hechten kinderen zich? Niet overal op de wereld is de moeder de primaire hechting. In andere culturen zijn juist vaders, andere opvoeders of broers en zussen belangrijk voor de hechting.  

Extended family is in sommige culturen erg van belang. De betrokkenheid van de kinderen hangt af van of ze deel uit blijven maken van de nucleaire familie of dat het huis verlaten bij volwassenheid. Verschillende mensen bieden dus in verschillende culturen de opvoeding voor het kind. 

Docent: Kan je relateren over WEIRD onderzoeken. Door ons westers geindustrialiseerde landen bedacht, maar is dus kennelijk niet zo.

Van artikel: The cast of characters and scenarios of child rearing, along with cultural prototypes of the structure of relationships, are closely involved in children’s development. Attachment between infants and family members is related to issues of survival, cultural values regarding relationships, and community arrangements regarding families. Who else is available relates to how family and community specialize in caregiving, companionship, and instructional roles. Community arrangements contribute in important ways to children’s opportunities to learn the mature ways of their community from observing and joining in with their elders. If young children cannot enter community activities, adults may design specialized child-focused settings for them, such as schooling and the kind of adult-child interactions that often characterize middle-class parenting. Adult-child play, lessons, and child-focused conversations seem to be a specific cultural solution to providing children with preparation for later mature contributions, while segregating them from participation during childhood. Whether interaction in groups is structured in successive one-to-one engagement or in fluid multiparty engagement seems to vary with cultural emphasis on children’s broad participation in the community and to connect with the cultural institution of Western schooling.

Yaman, A., Mesman, J., & Linting, M. (2010). Parenting in an individualistic culture with a collectivistic cultural background: The case of Turkish immigrant families with toddlers in the Netherlands. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 617—628. doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9346-y

Van Mourik and others and Yaman and others. You can use the model of the summary, presented in the reading guide of the first week. You don’t need to know the method section by heart, focus on introduction and results of the study, as presented in discussion.

1. What is the main question?

Expanding our knowledge on parenting practices of immigrant families is crucial for designing culturally sensitive parenting intervention programs in countries with high immigration rates. We investigated differences in patterns of parenting between second-generation immigrant and native families with young children.

Wat zijn verschillen in opvoedingspatronen tussen Turks-Nederlandse en Nederlandse gezinnen?

2. In what way is the question answered?

Authoritarian and authoritative control and sensitivity of second-generation Turkish immigrant mothers of 2-yearold children (n = 70) and native Dutch mothers (n = 70) were observed in the home and in the laboratory.

3. Which theories and key concepts are described?

Keywords:
Immigrant families
Observed parenting
Sensitivity: Parental sensitivity refers to the ability to perceive the child’s signals, to interpret these signals correctly, and to respond to them in a prompt and appropriate way (Ainsworth et al. 1978). The sensitivity construct is also closely related to measures of maternal warmth and emotional supportiveness (De Wolff and Van IJzendoorn 1997). Sensitive and warm parenting during early childhood predicts a secure parent–child relationship which in turn is associated with positive child development

Control: Parental control refers to how rules and limits are imposed on the child (for a review, see Coie and Dodge 1998) and is often distinguished as authoritarian versus authoritative control.
Toddlers
acculturatieproces: gedragsverandering door hebben voorkeur behoud eigen cultuur en identiteit.

4. What are the main results and or conclusions?

Controlling for maternal age and education, Turkish immigrant mothers were less supportive, gave less clear instructions to their children, were more intrusive and were less authoritative in their control strategies than native Dutch mothers. No differences were found in authoritarian control. In both ethnic groups supportive presence, clarity of instruction, authoritative control, and low intrusiveness loaded on one factor. No differences between ethnic groups were found in gender-differentiated parenting. Maternal emotional connectedness to the Turkish culture was associated with less authoritative control, whereas more use of the Turkish language was related to more sensitivity. Even though mean level differences in parenting behaviors still exist between second-generation Turkish immigrant and native Dutch mothers, the patterns of associations between parenting behaviors were comparable for both groups. This suggests that existing parenting interventions for native families may be applicable to second-generation Turkish immigrants as well.

Turks allochtone moeders bleken minder gevoelig en minder gezaghebbend. Geen verschil autoritaire controle. Acculturatie: Turks Nederlands moeders meer verbonden met nl cultuur en meer gebruik van gezaghebbende controle. Als meer Turks praten dan meer gevoeliger. Turkse meer opdringerig en minder respect autonomie kind. Geen verschil autoritaire controle. Onderzoek gebaseerd op 2 generaties, mogelijk meer inductief vanaf het autoritaire.

5. How is the article related to the theme of the week? The theme of the course? To lectures and other articles?

The theme of this week is parenting support. This article relates to that, as it investigates wether parenting support for turkish parents should be different than for dutch native parents. This relates to cultural diversity as the research thus aims to find out wether interventions should be culture specific.

Docent: wat haar opviel in conclusie en discussie dat enorme focus op 2^e generatie immigrantenouders geïncludeerd en die reden wordt heel vaak gebruikt in conclusie als argument waarom bepaalde hypotheses niet zijn uitgekomen. Dat roept bij haar vraag op of en hoe resultaten anders zouden zijn met 1^e generatie. Probeer voor jezelf te bekijken wat zijn de redenen dat ouders deze gedragingen laten zien.

Acculturatie stukje: wanneer Turkse ouders minder emotioneel gehecht aan Turkse cultluur, dan minder autoritatieve controle dus meer in richting van NL. maar aan andere kant als wel eigen taal, dan wel meer ondersteunend voor kind. Dus verschil culturele and liguistic maintenance. Dus echt wel goed als moeder taal gebruikt waarin ze het beste thuis is.