Study guide with Pediatric Neuropsychology and Neurodevelopment: the best scientific articles summarized

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Articlesummary with Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context by Cantor a.o. - 2018 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Annual Research Review: DNA methylation as a mediator in the association between risk exposure and child and adolescent psychopathology by Barker a.o. - 2018 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Hormonal changes associated with intra-uterine growth restriction: Impact on the developing brain and future neurodevelopment by Baud & Berkane - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Genetic control of postnatal human brain growth by Van Dyck & Morrow - 2017 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Early nutrition influences developmental myelination and cognition in infants and young children by Deoni a.o. - 2018 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Developmental origins of the human hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by Howland a.o. - 2017 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Concern for others in the first year of life: Theory, evidence, and avenues for research by Davidov a.o. - 2013 - Exclusive
Artikelsamenvatting bij The adaptive human parental brain: implications for children's social development van Feldman - 2015

Artikelsamenvatting bij The adaptive human parental brain: implications for children's social development van Feldman - 2015

Dit artikel is een review over de hersenbasis van menselijk ouderschap. De neurale netwerken van zowel dieren als mensen betrokken bij ouderlijk opvoedgedrag, de verschillen tussen moeders en vaders en biologische gedragssynchronisatie worden besproken.


Waar gaat dit artikel over?

Dit artikel is een review over de hersenbasis van menselijk ouderschap. Ouderschap is van vitaal belang om te overleven, het beïnvloedt de ontwikkeling van de hersenen bij jonge individuen en wordt beïnvloed door interacties met zuigelingen, partners en gemeenschappen. De review richt zich op mensgericht onderzoek, waarbij onderzocht is welke hersennetwerken betrokken zijn bij ouderschap, wat hun gevoeligheid voor verschillende opvoedingsfactoren is, welke implicaties voor de ontwikkeling van baby's er zijn en hoe dit onderzoek kan bijdragen aan het begrijpen van bredere sociale functies zoals empathie en sociale synchronie. Feldman veronderstelt dat het brein van de ouders een hoogtepunt in de menselijke evolutie vertegenwoordigt en dat het overlevingsfuncties integreert met de complexiteit van het menselijk brein. Deze integratie biedt inzicht in mens specifieke sociale vaardigheden, zoals empathie en sociale synchronie.

Wat is er bekend over het ouderbrein bij dieren?

Studies naar vrouwelijke knaagdieren laten zien dat het mediale pre-optische gebied (MPOA) in de hypothalamus geactiveerd wordt door zwangerschapshormonen en een belangrijke rol speelt bij het initiëren van moederlijk gedrag. Het verbetert de beloning en motivatie van de moeder door middel van dopaminecircuits. MPOA beïnvloedt de amygdala, wat de waakzaamheid van de moeder verhoogt en de vorming van sociale herinneringen ondersteunt. Bij het moduleren van het zorgcircuit en het gevoelig maken voor sociale ervaringen speelt oxytocine een rol. Het ouderschap bij knaagdieren omvat twee fasen:

  1. Het onderdrukken van afkeer van signalen van baby's
  2. Het vergroten van de motivatie van de moeder

Corticale processen en het oxytocinesysteem van de hersenen van het kind hebben echter minder aandacht gekregen in knaagdierstudies.

Wat is er bekend over het ouderbrein bij mensen?

Welke evolutionaire aspecten van het ouderbrein zijn er?

Het menselijke ouderbrein deelt evolutionaire aspecten van ouderlijke zorg met andere zoogdieren, waarbij de amygdala en beloningscircuits een rol spelen bij ouderlijke waakzaamheid , angst voor de veiligheid van baby's en de lonende aard van de ouder-kind gehechtheid. Daarnaast speelt oxytocine ook een modulerende rol in verschillende sociaal-affectieve functies bij mensen, zoals empathie, groepscohesie en sociaal begrip. Dit suggereert dat het overlevingssysteem, beïnvloed door zwangerschapshormonen, gedurende het hele menselijke leven sociale cognitieve functies van hogere orde blijft beïnvloeden, zoals empathie.

Een cruciaal verschil tussen menselijke en dierlijke ouderlijke zorg is de integratie van subcorticale structuren met meerdere isolerende en frontotemporopariëtale netwerken bij mensen. Deze netwerken worden geassocieerd met empathie, mentaliseren en emotieregulatie en vormen een flexibele en complexe basis voor menselijk ouderschap.

Wat houdt de ouder-kind band in?

In tegenstelling tot knaagdieren is menselijke binding exclusief en persoons specifiek, en vereist een continue reorganisatie van het breinnetwerk op basis van ervaringen uit het verleden. De plasticiteit van het menselijk brein, aangedreven door oxytocine, stemt de hersenen van ouders af om te reageren op individuele signalen van kinderen, wat de ontwikkeling van de sociale vaardigheden van kinderen ondersteunt.

Wat laten beeldvormingsstudies zien over het menselijk ouderbrein?

Functionele magnetische resonantiebeeldvorming (fMRI)-onderzoeken laten zien dat er sprake is van een wereldwijd ouderlijk opvoednetwerk in het brein als reactie op signalen van baby's. Het netwerk omvat de amygdala, de oxytocine-producerende hypothalamus en het dopaminerge beloningscircuit, onderling verbonden met corticale netwerken die betrokken zijn bij empathie, mentaliseren en emotieregulatie. Deze overlappende netwerken definiëren het menselijke "sociale brein" en ondersteunen verschillende aspecten van ouderschap.

Hoe is het ouderbrein geëvolueerd?

Het ouderbrein is niet geëvolueerd door complexe sociale functies te integreren in de ouderlijke context, maar deze structuren zijn eerder geëvolueerd binnen de context van het ouderschap om de overleving van het kind te maximaliseren. Hersenplasticiteit, hoge oxytocinespiegels na de bevalling en biologische synchronisatie van gedragingen dragen bij aan deze aanpassing, waardoor diverse culturele opvoedingspraktijken mogelijk zijn.

Waar hangt de reactie van het ouderbrein op signalen van baby's van af?

Activering van hersennetwerken van ouders wordt beïnvloed door het type signaal van baby's en het geslacht van de ouders. Het zien van de baby activeert het limbische netwerk van motivatie en beloning bij moeders, vaders en niet-ouders, wat een flexibel opvoednetwerk suggereert. Het ouderlijke netwerk van zoogdieren, gecentreerd rond de oxytocine-producerende hypothalamus, is minder actief bij menselijke moeders, terwijl de amygdala vooral bij moeders sterker wordt geactiveerd als reactie op het huilen van baby's. Ouderlijke hersenbanen omvatten structuren die gevoelig zijn gemaakt door zwangerschapshormonen en corticale netwerken op basis van ervaringen.

Hoe verschilt het ouderbrein tussen moeders en vaders?

Wat zijn de verschillen bij dieren?

Er zou meer onderzoek gedaan moeten worden naar de mechanismen van het vaderlijke brein, vooral hoe moeders en vaders hun inspanningen coördineren om hun kinderen groot te brengen. Biparentale knaagdierstudies tonen aan dat actieve vaderlijke zorg de informatieverwerking bij baby's verbetert en de integratie bevordert tussen hersennetwerken die betrokken zijn bij koestering, leren en motivatie. Door fMRI-reacties van moeders en vaders te vergelijken met de video van hun baby, vonden onderzoekers verschillende hersenactiveringspatronen: grotere amygdala-activering bij moeders en grotere corticale activering bij vaders. Deze resultaten ondersteunen het idee dat er afzonderlijke paden zijn tussen moeders en vaders. Oxytocine- en vasopressinespiegels correleerden met hersenactivaties bij respectievelijk moeders en vaders, waardoor de geslacht specifieke bindingsrollen van deze hormonen werden versterkt.

Wat zijn de verschillen in mensen?

Menselijk breinonderzoek richt zich op de gevonden overeenkomsten en verschillen in de hersenactivatie tijdens reacties van ouders in verschillende mantelzorg rollen (primaire en secundaire zorgverleners). Veranderingen in functionele connectiviteit en grijze stof volume werden waargenomen in moeders en vaders, wat laat zien hoe het ouderbrein zich aanpast aan de benodigde zorg van een kind. Brein tot brein synchronisatie ontstaat in de functionele netwerken tussen moeders en vaders, wat weerspiegelt hoe zij hun hersenreacties coördineren om efficiënt baby signalen te begrijpen.
Uit recente studies naar de invloed van hormonen in de ouderlijke zorg op de hersenactiviteit blijkt dat oxytocine gecorreleerd is met de hersenactivatie bij beloning, waakzaamheid, empathie, spiegelen, en mentaliserende netwerken in zowel moeders als vaders. Vaders' testosteron niveaus zijn gecorreleerd aan veranderingen in de hersenactivatie, wat een verschuiving weerspiegelt van paring naar ouderschap.

Maternale sensitiviteit en synchroniteit correleerden met hersenstructuren in belonings-, waakzaamheids-, empathie-, spiegel- en mentaliserende netwerken. Dit benadrukt de neuro-as die betrokken is bij de gedragsmatige reactie van de moeder op haar kind. De interactieve synchronie van vaders is echter geassocieerd met corticale structuren, niet de subcorticale structuren, wat het idee van een apart breinnetwerk voor vaderlijke zorg ondersteunt.
De effecten van tegenspoed op de hersenen van een moeder zijn ook onderzocht, met name in gevallen van postpartumdepressie, trauma of middelenmisbruik. Psychopathologische aandoeningen komen tot uiting in de hersenen door verminderde activatie in belonings- en empathiecircuits, verhoogde waakzaamheid, veranderde connectiviteit en effecten buiten het netwerk van ouderlijke zorg. Er is meer onderzoek nodig om te begrijpen hoe ongunstige omstandigheden specifieke netwerken in de hersenen vormen.

Wat is biologische gedragssynchronisatie in het sociale ouderbrein?

Het ouderbrein van zoogdieren is geëvolueerd door wederzijdse invloeden tussen de fysiologie van de moeder en het kind, gefaciliteerd door de ontwikkeling van de placenta en zwangerschapshormonen. Bij mensen duurt dit proces langer, omdat de hersenen van baby's bij de geboorte nog onvolwassen zijn. Dit leidt tot een langere periode van plasticiteit voor ouderlijke zorg. De hersenen van de ouder en het kind worden op elkaar afgestemd door middel van bio-gedragssynchronisatie, waardoor de basis wordt gelegd voor de levenslange sociale en aanpassingsvaardigheden van het kind. Oxytocine, ouderlijk gedrag en fysiek contact spelen een cruciale rol bij het vormgeven van deze lange termijn effecten. Ouderlijke oxytocinespiegels voorspellen de sociale betrokkenheid van kinderen, terwijl sensitief ouderschap in de kindertijd een positieve invloed heeft op sociale resultaten later in het leven.

Wat is de conclusie?

Het bestuderen van het ouderbrein geeft inzicht in de menselijke socialiteit door ouderschap tussen soorten te vergelijken. De neurobiologie van het ouderschap, waarbij hersenstructuren en oxytocine betrokken zijn, beïnvloedt verschillende sociale functies gedurende het hele leven en is gekoppeld aan sociale disfuncties. Het onderzoeken van hersen-tot-hersensynchronisatie tijdens interacties in het echte leven tussen ouders en kinderen helpt te begrijpen hoe de hersenen sociale signalen verwerken en banden vormen. Het aanpassingsvermogen en de samenwerkingsmogelijkheden van het brein van de ouders bieden een dynamisch model om te begrijpen hoe de hersenen synchroniseren voor een succesvolle opvoeding van kinderen en gezinscohesie.

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Articlesummary with Development of visual-spatial attention by Johnson - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Making sense of the world: Infant learning from a predictive processing perspective by Köster a.o. - 2020 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with The mechanisms and moderators of “Fade-Out”: Towards understanding why the skills of early childhood program participants converge over time with the skills of other children by Abenavoli - 2019 - Exclusive

Articlesummary with The mechanisms and moderators of “Fade-Out”: Towards understanding why the skills of early childhood program participants converge over time with the skills of other children by Abenavoli - 2019 - Exclusive

Articlesummary with The mechanisms and moderators of “Fade-Out”: Towards understanding why the skills of early childhood program participants converge over time with the skills of other children by Abenavoli - 2019

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Articlesummary with Linking language and cognition in infancy by Perszyk & Waxman - 2018 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with The role of the motor system in action understanding and communication: Evidence from human infants and non-primates by Salo a.o. - 2018 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with A systematic review of targeted social and emotional learning interventions in early childhood education and care settings by Blewitt a.o. - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Temperamental vulnerability to emotion dysregulation and risk for mental and physical health challenges by Calkins & Dollar - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with A systematic review of reviews of the outcome of noninstitutional child maltreatment by Carr a.o. - 2020 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Understanding the development of face and emotion processing under a predictive processing framework by Pereira a.o. - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Neural substrates of early executive function development by Fiske & Holmboe - 2019 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with The neurodevelopment of autism from infancy through toddlerhood by Girault & Piven - 2020 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Executive function in the first three years of life: precursors, predictors and patterns by Hendry a.o. - 2016 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Early life stress and brain function: Activity and connectivity associated with processing emotion and reward by Herzberg & Gunnar - 2020 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Environmental toxicology: Sensitive periods of development and neurodevelopmental disorders by Heyer & Meredith - 2017 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Associations between screen-based media use and brain white matter integrity in preschool-aged children by Hutton a.o. - 2019

Articlesummary with Associations between screen-based media use and brain white matter integrity in preschool-aged children by Hutton a.o. - 2019

Childhood is becoming more and more digitized. Though still not clear, there may be developmental and health risks with excessive screen-based media use. These risks include language delay, impaired executive function, poor sleep, impaired general cognition, decreased parent-child engagement, and possibly neurobiological risks. 


How can increased screen-based media use affect children’s development?

Childhood is becoming more and more digitized. Though still not clear, there may be developmental and health risks with excessive screen-based media use. These risks include language delay, impaired executive function, poor sleep, impaired general cognition, decreased parent-child engagement, and possibly neurobiological risks. 

What is diffusion tensor imaging?

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a technology to quantify white matter integrity in the brain and its various factors. Parameters of DTI include fractional anisotropy (FA) and radial diffusivity (RD), scalar values associated with microstructural organization, and myelination of white matter tracts. 

What are the structural neurobiological correlates of screen-based media use in preschool-aged children?

A cross-sectional study revealed the following results:

  • Fractional anisotropy is associated with organization of white matter in parallel bundles, whereas radial diffusivity is inversely associated with degree of myelination of such bundles, as well as axonal packing and other microstructural processes. 
  • Increased screen time was associated with lower fractional anisotropy and higher radial diffusivity of the arcuate fasciculus, and also with lower EVT-2 and CTOPP-2 scores. 

What can be concluded based upon these correlations?

Increased use of screen-based media was associated with lower microstructual integrity of brain white matter tracts that support language, executive functions, and emergent literacy skills. Screen use was also associated with lower scores on corresponding behavioral measures.

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Article summary with Autism as an adaptive common variant pathway for human brain development by Johnson - 2017 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with Neural histology and neurogenesis of the human fetal and infant brain by Kostovic a.o. - 2019

Articlesummary with Neural histology and neurogenesis of the human fetal and infant brain by Kostovic a.o. - 2019


What general principles are essential for understanding the developmental dynamics of fetal and baby brain?

  • Developmental events occur in specific architectonic compartments, such as embryonic and fetal zones. 
  • The compartments are transient, but can be visualized in historical sections and MR images.
  • To be able to understand the development of functional connectivity, the nature and timing of development of basic connectivity elements and their molecular properties need to be analyzed. 

What are important events in brain development in the early fetal period (eight to fifteen postconceptional weeks)?

  • There are processes of proliferation, migration, and cell aggregation. 
  • All embryonic brain divisions and their major subdivisions are clearly visible on coronal sections at the end of the embryonic period.
  • The formation of the cortical plate is an important cytoarchitectonic event. After its formation, the cerebral wall of the lateral neocortex consists of the marginal zone, the cortical plate, the presubplate, the intermediate zone, the subventricular zone, and the ventricular zone. 
  • According to the radial unit hypothesis, the cortical neurons are generated in proliferative units of the ventricular zone, migrate along radial glial guides and settle in vertical ontogenetic columns within the cortical plate. 
  • With regards to the growth of early afferents to the human cerebral cortex, thalamocortical fibers pass through the cerebral stalk, cross the diencephalo-telencephalic and subpallio-pallial border and fan out within the intermediate zone on their way to the cortical anlage. Basal forebrain fibers reach the neocortical cerebral wall through the external capsule. Corticospinal and corticopontine pathways are located medial to thalamic radiation and are partily intermingled with it. 
  • The first synapses in the neocortical anlage appear. 
  • There is a trilaminar pattern of organization consisting of the cortical plate, the intermediate zone, and periventricular proliferative zone. 
  • Changes in cell aggregation (cytoarchitectonics), proliferation and migration, neuronal and dendritic differentiation, and axonal growth.

What are important events in brain development in the midfetal period (fifteen to twenty three postconceptional weeks)?

  • Four histogenetic-neurogenetic events are most important during this period: neuronal aggregation and cytoarchitectural development, axonal outgrowth and ingrowth, dendritic differentiation, and molecular specification.
  • The formation of synapses continues in the subplate and marginal zone. 
  • Molecular specification of cerebral cortex can be divided in two processes, namely the areal specification and the specification of subsets of cortical neurons. 
  • Major protection and commissural pathways are still growing (think of corticostriatal, corticospinal, thalamocortical, corticopontine, and corpus callosum).
  • Associative pathways are not well developed, except for associative fibers connecting frontal cortex with cingulate neocortical portion of the limbic lobe.
  • The presence of synapses in the subplate and the dense distribution of synapses in the marginal zone indicate circuitry development.

What are important events in brain development in the late fetal period (twenty four to thirty four postconceptional weeks)?

  • Three histogenic and neurogenetic processes are most important during the beginning of the late fetal period: ingrowth of axons, synaptogenesis, and dendritic differentiation of pyramidal neurons.
  • Rapid development of primary sulci and gyri. The central, precentral, and postcentral sulcus delineate the developing precentral and postcentral gyrus. Superior and inferior temporal sulcus appear in the temporal lobe. Superior and inferior frontal sulci mark the position of future superior, medial, and inferior frontal gyrus in the frontal lobe.
  • On the medial hemispheric surface, there is deepening of the parieto-occipital and calcarine fissure and the appearance of the cingulate sulcus.
  • Gradual decrease in the intensity of neuronal proliferation in ventricular and subventricular zone.
  • At the end of the late fetal period secondary sulci develop rapidly, there is an increase in the volume of the cerebral wall, and there is a decline in proliferative zones.
  • During the end of the late fetal period, the most intensive histogenetic events are neuronal aggregation, cytoarchitectonic changes in laminar pattern, axonal ingrowth and outgrowth, dendritic differentiation, and synaptogenesis in the cortical plate.

What are important events in brain development in the neonatal period?

  • The main event is the formation of tertiary gyri.
  • There are advances in neuronal aggregation and cytoarchitecture, with parallel establishment of tangential and radial patterns. There is gradual resolution of layer IV in the premotor cortex and the disappearance of this layer in the motor cortex, resolution of the voluminous subplate and its transformation into a characteristic thin band at the interface between layer VI and the gyral white matter, and an increase in size of pyramidal cell bodies.
  • There is growth of short corticocortical fibers.
  • Dendritic differentiation.
  • Synaptogenesis.
  • Myelination and increase in compactness of axonal pathways.
  • Cell death and axonal pruning.
  • The proliferation and migration of neurons have ceased, while the proliferation of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes is continuing.

What are important events in brain development in early infancy?

There is a rapid and massive increase in the total brain volume during the first year. The elaboration of cortical gyrification continues. Some histogenetic processes rapidly increase in intensity (such as synaptogenesis and dendritic differentiation), while others follow a steady pace (such as cytoarchitectonig development, neurochemical maturation, and myelination). There is a decline in the growth of axonal pathways.

What are important events in brain development in late infancy?

The cerebral hemispheres continue to grow. The most intense histogenetic and neurogenetic events during this period are morphological differentiation of neurons and dendrites, synaptogenesis, myelination, and changes in cortical cytoarchitectonics.

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Articlesummary with Premature birth and developmental programming: Mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability by Lammertink a.o. - 2021 - Exclusive
Articlesummary with The relationships between screen use and health indicators among infants, toddlers, and preschoolers: A meta-analysis and systematic review by Li a.o. - 2020 - Exclusive
Article summary with Promoting self-regulation in young children: The role of parenting interventions by Morawska a.o. - 2019 - Exclusive
Article summary with Walk like me, talk like me. The connection between mirror neurons and autism spectrum disorder by Saffin & Tohid - 2020 - Exclusive
Article summary with Effects of parenting interventions for at-risk parents with infants: a systematic review and meta-analyses by Rayce a.o. - 2017 - Exclusive
Article summary with Self-regulation in preschool and early elementary classrooms: Why it is important and how to promote it by Savina - 2021 - Exclusive
Article summary with Institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children 1: a systematic and integrative review of evidence regarding effects on development by Van IJzendoorn e.a. - 2020 - Exclusive

Article summary with Institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children 1: a systematic and integrative review of evidence regarding effects on development by Van IJzendoorn e.a. - 2020 - Exclusive

Article summary with Institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children 1: a systematic and integrative review of evidence regarding effects on development by Van IJzendoorn e.a. - 2020

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Artikelsamenvatting bij Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta‐analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience van Van IJzendoorn - 2020 - Exclusive

Artikelsamenvatting bij Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta‐analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience van Van IJzendoorn - 2020 - Exclusive

Artikelsamenvatting bij Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta‐analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience van Van IJzendoorn - 2020

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Article summary with Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta-analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience by Van IJzendoorn a.o. - 2020 - Exclusive

Article summary with Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta-analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience by Van IJzendoorn a.o. - 2020 - Exclusive

Article summary with Annual Research Review: Umbrella synthesis of meta-analyses on child maltreatment antecedents and interventions: differential susceptibility perspective on risk and resilience by Van IJzendoorn a.o. - 2020

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Articlesummary with Towards an integrated account of the development of self-regulation from a neurocognitive perspective: A framework for current and future longitudinal multi-modal investigations by Vink a.o. - 2020

Articlesummary with Towards an integrated account of the development of self-regulation from a neurocognitive perspective: A framework for current and future longitudinal multi-modal investigations by Vink a.o. - 2020

Poor self-regulation in childhood has been linked to various problems later in life. An integrated account in which longitudinal data on brain, behavior, and environment are all taken into consideration should help to understand causal relationships in terms of specific, well-defined mechanisms and develop interventions for when development goes wrong. An integrated account could help understand how effects of early problems can be prevented or minimized.


What is self-regulation?

Self-regulation refers to the ability to monitor and modulate our emotions, behavior, and cognition to allow us to achieve our goals and adapt to changing circumstances. Self-regulation develops in interaction with the environment in complex ways that result in positive or negative developmental cascades. Low levels of self-regulation early on in life can impede self-regulation development later in life. Unlike some other factors that may cause adverse outcomes, self-regulation may be quite malleable and be a good target for intervention.

What is the difference between effortful control and strategic control?

Effortful control refers to lower-level self-regulation. It involves the use of relatively simple executive functions, such as response inhibition or attention. It focuses on responding to the immediate situation. It can refer to both a trait and a type of process. Strategic control refers to the use of higher-order executive functions to achieve more sophisticated forms of self-regulation, such as planning. Different levels of self-regulation arise at different developmental periods.

How does self-regulation develop?

Self-regulation develops in interaction with a maturing brain. The emergence of brain networks and the quality of their connections, among other developments, dictate the possibilities and limits for self-regulation abilities. In turn, self-regulation abilities, learning, and adapting to new experiences affect subsequent brain development. Brain development is not a linear process. Maturation occurs in distinct developmental periods which can be distinguished by the onset or end of specific neural processes. Neuroimaging measures may improve our understanding of how self-regulation develops.

What is effortful control and how does it develop?

Effortful control refers to the top-down control over bottom-up processes for purposes of self-regulation. The low-level executive functions that are fundamental to early life self-regulation begin to emerge in the first year of life. In early stages of development, self-regulation involves only effortful control and associated low-level executive functions. In later stages of development, age-appropriate self-regulation can involve different and more complex cognitive processes. The development of more complex self-regulation is parallel by the development of the orienting-attention network that enables children to orient to stimuli and to shift attention from one stimulus to another, and subsequently the executive attention network.

How do higher-level executive functions develop in relation to brain maturation?

High-level executive functions build on the integration of the low-level executive functions that have developed in infancy. Brain development early in life can be characterized by volume expansion, neuron growth, and synapse formation. Then, during childhood, gray matter volume starts to shrink. Myelination of white matter nerve fibers and synaptic pruning combine to form brain networks that support the shift from low-level to high-level executive functions.

How does strategic control develop in relation to brain maturation?

Strategic control requires goal-directed coordination of previously acquired low- and high-level executive functions. It is a level of self-regulation that emerges during adolescence due to the effective integration and coordination of executive functions. It co-occurs with the improvement of the quality of connections between cortical and subcortical regions, facilitated by the increase in myelination of white-matter tracts connecting these regions, allowing for faster and more precise neural signaling.

Why whilst fine-tuning effortful control are there so many indicators of reduced self-regulation capacity in adolescence?

Adolescence is associated with behaviors such as increased risk taking, heightened sensitivity to social cues, and impulsivity. These indicators of reduced self-regulation capacity appear to be related to a developmental, transient imbalance between frontal lobe control and subcortical reward processing. There are regional differences in maturation speed across the brain, with the frontal cortex developing the slowest.

Why is there no integrated developmental account of self-regulation?

  • Self-regulation is conceptualized, labeled, and measured in many different ways, hindering the integration of data from different groups and studies.
  • There is a lack of integration of developmental measures of self-regulation with repeated neuroimaging studies.
  • There is a lack of integration across different developmental periods.

What is the benefit of an integrated developmental account of self-regulation?

Poor self-regulation in childhood has been linked to various problems later in life. An integrated account in which longitudinal data on brain, behavior, and environment are all taken into consideration should help to understand causal relationships in terms of specific, well-defined mechanisms and develop interventions for when development goes wrong. An integrated account could help understand how effects of early problems can be prevented or minimized.

What is the role of the Consortium on Individual Development (CID) in developing an integrated developmental account of self-regulation?

The CID combines a series of integrated large-scale, multi-modal, longitudinal studies and uses the same instrument in all cohorts, addresses a range of essential factors in the development of self-regulation, and allows for the analysis of the same concept measured in a comparable way. It researches different cohorts and taps into different environmental factors and brain and behavioral measures throughout childhood and adolescence, with repeated neuroimaging measurements.

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Articlesummary with Graph theoretical modeling of baby brain networks by Zhao a.o. - 2019

Articlesummary with Graph theoretical modeling of baby brain networks by Zhao a.o. - 2019

In graph theoretical modeling, a network is composed of a certain number of nodes that are connected by weighted or un-weighted edges. A graph can be classified as a director or undirected type, depending on the existence or absence of directional information associated with the edges. In human brain development studies, the macro-scale network is often used. It is a model that can record the inter-regional connections in the whole brain in vivo through neuroimaging data. Network modes in this model are usually defined by brain partitions that are previously assigned, and the edges are determined by the structural or functional interactions between the separate brain regions.


What is the graph theoretical modeling framework?

In graph theoretical modeling, a network is composed of a certain number of nodes that are connected by weighted or un-weighted edges. A graph can be classified as a director or undirected type, depending on the existence or absence of directional information associated with the edges. In human brain development studies, the macro-scale network is often used. It is a model that can record the inter-regional connections in the whole brain in vivo through neuroimaging data. Network modes in this model are usually defined by brain partitions that are previously assigned, and the edges are determined by the structural or functional interactions between the separate brain regions.

How are network nodes defined?

Acquiring network nodes relies on neuroimaging. In EEG, fNIRS, and MEG studies, nodes are determined by using their derived cortical locations of electrodes, detectors, or sensors. In MRI studies, a parcellation scheme or atlas is needed to divide the brain into different regions of interest which are defined based on anatomical or functional information or on a random algorithm. Different parcellations capture different patterns of structural or functional pathways. The number of nodes significantly influences the absolute value of topological attributes.

How are network edges defined?

Brain regions are structurally connected through a large number of fiber bundles that provide biological pathways for information transfer. Through dMRI-based tractography, these fiber tracts can be reconstructed and then used to define edges of the structural connectivity network. The number of reconstructed streamlines or averaged informative diffusion indexes of the connection can be used as the edge weight.

What is network thresholding?

Before obtaining the brain network, a thresholding step is usually performed to define the edges to be used in the subsequent graph theoretical analysis, though some studies use the raw weighted network without thresholding. There are different ways of doing this:

  • Setting an absolute cut-off value to select edges with greater weights in an individual network. Excluding weak edges may reduce the effects of weak covariance or spurious connections that could be caused by imaging noise, cumulative tractography errors, or head motions.
  • In proportional thresholding a fixed number of the strongest connections are retained in each subject. It equals the network density across individuals to minimize its influence on network topological properties, though it may ignore potentially valuable connections.

What are global and nodal aspects?

The topology of a brain network can be characterized in terms of its global and nodal aspects. The global attributes measure the architecture of the whole network graph. The nodal attributes measure topological features of a single node.

What is meant with the segregation of a network?

The segregation of a network refers to the ability of local information processing that is responsible for specialized functions. The clustering coefficient and modularity are two attributes that provide a quantitative measurement of the segregation capacity of brain network.

What is the clustering coefficient of a node and of a network?

The clustering coefficient of a node refers to the tendency to which the neighboring nodes of a node are interconnected. It reflects the density of local clusters. The clustering coefficient of a network refers to the average nodal clustering coefficients across all nodes in the network.

What is meant with the integration of a network?

Network integration refers to the ability of parallel communication with distributed nodes which can be quantitatively measured by the characteristic path length or global efficiency. The characteristic path length of a network can be calculated by averaging the shortest path lengths between each pair of nodes in the network. A path represents a route of edges that connect one node with others. Its length is defined as the sum of the number or weights of the edges. The global efficiency of a network is the inverse of the average values of the shortest path length between any two nodes. A high degree of network integration is seen in a network that has high global efficiency and the low shortest path length has high global information transfer efficiency.

What is a small-world network?

A small-world network possesses a shorter characteristic path length than a regular network and a higher clustering coefficient than a random network, to guarantee high capacity for local and global information transfer networks. It is an optimized topology that balanced between a regular and a random network. A regular network has a high clustering coefficient and long characteristic path length. A random network has a low clustering coefficient and a short characteristic path length.

What is nodal degree?

Nodal degree is the most direct nodal metric, referring to the number of edges linking to a node. High degree nodes function as hubs in information transmission. The degree distribution of a network indicated the proportion of nodes that have a certain degree, which can be an indication of the resilience of the network. Rich-club organization refers to highly connected hubs, indicating that the hub nodes tend to be more densely interconnected with each other than by random chance would be expected.

Which types of network edges are distinguished?

The network edges can be classified into three types:

  • Rich-club connections which link between rich-club nodes.
  • Feeder connections which link between peripheral and core nodes.
  • Local connections which link between non-rich-club nodes.

How does the prenatal brain network develop?

The prenatal structural network already shows broadly adult-like topological structures. The network is already highly efficient at local and global information transfers, possessing the specialized local communities for segregation and the high-cost backbones for integration. Increased normalized clustering coefficient, stable normalized shortest path length, and increasing small-worldness with development indicate that the shaping of the network seems to lean toward segregation enforcement during the prenatal stage. Short-range connections develop fast, hub regions expand into the inferior frontal cortex and insula regions and develop fast on their nodal connectivity and nodal betweenness centrality.

How does the postnatal brain network develop?

Structural segregation appears to be decreasing while structural integration is increasing, as can be seen by decreased modularity and characteristic path length and increased number of inter-module connectors and global efficiency. During early postnatal life there is dynamic regional reshaping in the structural network, as expressed by upgrades in network robustness and the left anterior cingulate gyrus and left superior occipital gyrus which become hubs. Neonatal functional brain networks maintain highly efficient small-world and modularity structure. The dorsal attention network and default mode network mature at one year of life, whereas the salience network and bilateral frontoparietal network are still developing at that time.

What is the topological development of the baby brain network?

With regards to the structural network, the hypothesis is that the structural network is well-established at the time of birth, with many local connections within modules and several major distant connections between modules. With development, the network becomes more segregated with enhancement of local clusters during prenatal development. Then it becomes more integrated with increasing inter-module connections during postnatal development. With regards to the functional network, the hypothesis is that it is still immature and incomplete at birth. With development, the network shows enhanced segregation during prenatal development. Then the emergence and increase of long connections intensify the integrated ability of networks.

How does preterm growth affect the development of the brain network?

Preterm growth is the most common type of early atypical growth. It involves the sudden interruption of typical development processes as a result of complex genetic and environmental processes. The abnormal brain topology is characterized by disruptions in cortical-subcortical connectivity and short-distance cortico-cortical connections, as well as reduced edge strengths in widespread tracts, increased clustering coefficient, and increased nodal clustering coefficients located at the lateral parietal, ventral, and lateral frontal cortices. The changes in brain network caused by preterm birth continue into later life.

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