Study Guide with article summaries for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology at Leiden University

Preface

An emotion consists of various components, namely physical arousal, motor expressions, action tendencies and subjective feelings. These components have an effect on social cognitions, attitudes and social interactions. That is why it is important that emotions are signaled during a conversation. This is about the emotion that is being emitted, so the non-verbal communication. Emotions play a role in forming and breaking social relationships. People also like to talk to others about emotions. One of the most important areas of social psychology where emotions are important is within group dynamics. This concerns the effects of 'contagious emotions'; passing a felt emotion over to others. Examples of contagious emotions are laughter and yawning.

What is an emotion?

The James-Lange theory

The James-Lange theory takes a peripheral position (which means that it focuses more on the somatic and autonomous rather than the central nervous system). In addition, it is suggested that someone first perceives an event, after which a physical reaction occurs. Then, only after the sensation of that physical reaction, an emotion occours. The difference between the James-Lange theory and the theories before, was that in the James-Lange theory it was thought that an emotion would come only after the physical reaction and in the theories before the main idea was that that an emotion would come before a physical reaction.

Emotion as a social-psychological construct

Nowadays there is a growing consensus that 'emotion' should not be used as a synonym for 'feeling'. Instead, researchers suggest that feelings are one of the three components in the emotion construct. Other components are the neurophysiological responses and motor expressions. These 3 components together are called the 'emotional reaction triad'. Another component that belongs to this emotion construct is the action tendency, although this is also seen as a behavioral consequence rather than a component of emotion. In addition, the emotion construct includes a cognitive component, because there is always evaluative information processing when it comes to emotion-generating events. The cognitive interpretation of an event is also called an appraisal. An emotion is described as a fierce, dynamic and short process with a clear beginning and an end. This involves as a crisis response, in which the physiological and psychological components interact with each other during an emotion episode. Systems that were previously independent suddenly start working together in synchronization to ensure survival.

Why do we have emotions?

Emotions cost a lot of energy, so why do they exist?

The evolutionary significance of emotions

According to Darwin, emotions exist because they are adaptive and help regulate interactions within social living species (for example, raising eyebrows provides better vision).

Emotions as a social signaling system

Another explanation for the existence of emotions is that, because one person can express emotions, another person can respond to this more easily and this can also lead to a certain tendency towards action.

Emotions provide behavioral flexibility

Emotions are almost automatic, but are more flexible than normal stimulus-response responses. Emotions ensure 'latency time' between stimulus and action, which ensures that people are better at evaluating the situation. During that period, the chance of success and the seriousness of the consequences are examined, after which an optimal response can be chosen. If there is a negative consequence, the motivation to take action will be great. Therefore, emotions have a strong influence on motivation.

Information processing

Information processing which is done people, especially in the social field, usually consists of 'hot cognition'. These are emotional responses that help to evaluate relevant and irrelevant stimuli. The criteria used in the evaluation of stimuli are learned during conversations and are influenced by needs, preferences, goals and values.

Regulation and control

Our feelings are a constant monitor of what is happening, and thus serve as the evaluation and appraisal of the environment, physical changes in the central nervous system and action tendencies. This is a requirement when controlling or manipulating the emotion process.

So, an emotion:

• decouples stimulus and response
• ensures the (correct) action trends through a 'latency time'
• provides signals for the outside world (others)
• feelings can regulate emotional behav, which can be strateic in social interactions

How are emotions elicited and how are they distinguished?

Philosophical notions

It is clear to most philosophers that a certain situation is reacted with a certain type of emotion.

The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

According to Schachter, two factors are important in eliciting and distinguishing emotions, namely the perception of arousal and cognitions. Arousal is always the same (non-specific) and cognition leads to a label of the emotion (for example fear). In an experiment, arousal was generated in participants by means of an adrenaline injection. This showed that cognitions labeled this arousal for events that were taking place in their environment at that time. Emotions are thus formed by felt arousal and by the cognitive interpretation of the situations that are based on the behavioral model of expression. The results have not been replicated.

Appraisal theory

The appraisal theory of Lazarus consists of primary appraisal (fun / dislike, helps / hinders achievement of the goal) and secondary appraisal (to what extent can the person deal with the consequences of an event, given his or her competences, resources and strength). Lazarus calls this model a transactional model, because the outcome of the event is not only influenced by the nature of the event, but also by the needs, goals and resources of the person. It is different for each person and often leads to a mix of emotions (emotion blend).

Cultural and individual differences in appraisal at events

Culture causes differences in appraisal, for example socialism versus individualism. In a collectivist culture, guilt and shame are seen as the result of immoral things. In an individualistic culture this only applies to guilt and this emotion also lasts longer than in collectivist cultures. So the socio-cultural value can influence someone's emotional life. Individual differences in appraisal also cause different emotional responses.

Are there specific response patterns for different types of emotions?

There is agreement about the differentiation of the emotional component of emotions, but not about the reaction patterns of the peripheral system. James uses proprioceptive feedback (sensory information from organs about physical changes) to differentiate between emotions. Schachter and Singer, on the other hand, believe that non-specific physiological arousal combined with situational factors ensure that emotions can be differentiated. Tomkins spoke about discrete emotions, where he talked about neural programs that can control a certain emotion and the associated facial expression and motor skills.

Wat are motoric expressions?

Facial expressions

Evidence has shown found that facial expressions are universal, even though small differences have been found between cultures due to cultural desirability (display rules). 

Vocal expressions

Emotions are not only recognizable by facial expressions, but also by vocal expressions. Here too there are differences between people and cultures. Emotions in voice are partly universal, even though there are language differences between cultures. This is proof of a partial biological basis of emotions.

Control and strategic manipulation of an expression

Cultural norms about appropriate expression of an emotion are called display rules. It concerns the regulation of 'congenital' systems. In addition to the fact that it is appropriate to control your emotion expression because of cultural norms, it is also important from a strategic point of view. This would allow someone to manipulate someone else. Emotion expression often only comes into being when we see other people and that is why it is seen as a communication tool. But the more an emotion overwhelms us, the harder it is to regulate it.

Physiological changes

Physiological activity is not communicative, but it provides energy. This can ensure that someone is prepared for a specific action. Studies show specific patterns for the emotions fear and anger. These are functional: in case of fear, blood flows to the heart and brain to prevent blood loss. In the case of anger, the blood flows to the muscles for action.

Subjective feelings

This involves someone's conscious experience about the processes that take place in his or her body.

Dimensions of feeling

Wundt made a three-dimensional system to display the precise nature of all complex emotional states. The three dimensions are: excitement - depression, tension - relaxation, pleasant - unpleasant. There is only evidence for the first and third dimensions and therefore, in other studies, they often use a two-dimensional model of emotions. 

Verbal labeling of feelings

Emotions are socially structured (which means that the social and cultural factors create a reality for an individual). Cultural differences in value judgment systems, social structures, communication habits and other factors influence the emotion experiences and are reflected in culturally specified states of feeling. Feelings that are verbally expressed are influenced more quickly by sociocultural variations than other components of the emotion process. This makes sense because the subjective state of feeling represents the cultural and situational context and the other components of the emotion process.

How can emotion components interact?

Research has shown that the components of emotions are all strongly interconnected.

Catharsis

Catharsis revolves around the interaction of three components of emotion, namely expression, physiology and feeling. Through an expression, a person can calm himself down, reduce his arousal and at the same time change his state of feeling.

Proprioceptive feedback

Proprioceptive feedback (or the facial feedback hypothesis) states the opposite of the catharsis hypothesis. In this case, inhibition of facial expression reduces the intensity of an emotion and emphatic facial expressions can enhance the intensity of an emotion. In an experiment, participants had to hold a pen between their lips or teeth. The participants who used their laughing muscles to hold their pen rated the cartoons they saw as funnier. The effects were even stronger when the participants saw themselves in the mirror and the effects were also stronger with participants with high self-awareness. This has the opposite effect when someone has to smile kindly, while the person is actually furious, because this only reinforces the anger.

Dynamics of affective experience and behavior in depressed adolescents

Unipolar depression disorders are an example of emotion regulation disorders. This disregulation is caused by two systems, namely the appetitive system and the aversive system. These systems determine the valence of affective states. Depression is associated with more activity and sensitivity to aversive emotional systems. These cause the appetitive emotional system to become less active and less sensitive. A person will experience more negative affect and reduced positive affect. Three factors that influence this experience are intensity, duration and frequency. Duration is associated with depression, especially when looking at maintaining positive affect and disruptive negative affect.

Depression is also associated with less activity in the left PFC. Targeted behavior is motivated by this area and this causes positive affect. The amygdala is more active in depressed adults and children. Reward related neural structures are less active.

Depressed people experience negative affect more intensely and positive affect less intensely. Depression is also associated with less intense immediate responses to positive and negative stimuli.

Adolescents are undergoing changes in affective competence and contextual challenges. This is why it is important to study development during this period. Literature focuses on disturbances in negative affect, but not on the dysregulation of positive affect. The hypothesis in this study is that depressed adolescents experience dysphoria and anger more frequently, more intensely and for a longer period of time. They will also experience less frequent, less intense and less long-term happiness. Various instruments and behavioral observations have been used to investigate this.

Methods

Participants and Measurements

Participants were 152 adolescents who do not take antidepressants, with ages between 14-18 and their parents. Participants were recruited through a school screening (CES-D) and an in-home diagnostic interview (K-SADS). Families who met the research criteria after the diagnostic interview were invited to participate in a lab assessment. During this assessment, use was made of questionnaires (AIM, PANAS-X, MEI / Child-MEI) and family interaction tasks (LIFE) that evoke happiness, anger or dysphoria.

Results

Experience

Depressed participants experience anger for longer. Depressed women experience dysphoria longer than healthy women. Depressed men experience dysphoria longer than healthy men. Healthy participants experience happiness for longer than depressed participants, according to the MEI, but not according to the observation data.

Frequency

Depressive participants experience anger more often than healthy participants. The difference between depressed and healthy adolescents is greater for women. Depressive participants experience dysphoria more often from healthy participants. Depressive participants experience happiness less often than healthy participants.

Intensity

Depressive participants experience anger more intensively than healthy participants. Depressive participants experience sadness more intensely compared to healthy participants.

Discussion

Various abnormalities were found in terms of duration, frequency and intensity of affect. Depressed participants experience anger longer. Depressed women experience dysphoria longer than healthy women. Data about happiness varies with different methods. These results are consistent with earlier work, because it is shown that depressed adolescents have difficulty retaining positive affect. Data about intensity is less solid, because observations are unreliable. Depressed women mainly experience more anger. In general, depressed adolescents experience more negative and sad affect. Experiencing less positive affect is not supported by the data found. The lack of observation data may reflect task limitations or self-report data may differ in how people remember and summarize their experiences, rather than the actual affective experience. This can cause the difference in data from observations and self-report measurements. In the future, studying the interpersonal context is also important because the family environment of depressed adolescents differs from the environment of healthy adolescents.

A limitation in this study is that relapse and recovery are not included. Affective disregulation has been studied, but this is a very broad term. The generalizability of this study is questionable because there is a lack of diversity in terms of race and ethnicity. Finally, the relationship between adolescents' responses and affective experience can be studied.