What is this article about?

Stereotypes can harm social life, because they are shared within societies. Individuals’ well-being and opportunities can be harmed by stereotypes by for example fostering discrimination in hiring, and this is also true for positive beliefs. Successful interventions must break the vicious cycle by which stereotypes come into existence and endure over time.

How are stereotypes formed?

Stereotypes are acquired: people are not born with stereotypes in their mind. They stem from observations, and take form by processes of social cognition. The first step is categorization: the mental sorting of people into groups (based on for example their sex, race, age). Upon observing others, perceivers spontaneously infer traits that explain the behaviors that they observe. These inferences are related to social roles. For instance, the role of mother requires caring behaviours and therefore the role of ‘mother’ triggers the inference of traits such as ‘warm’, and ‘kind’. For some social categories, such as sex and age, many individuals have a lot of direct observations. Other categories, such as sexual orientation, are less visible. Exposure to the portrayal of members in legends, novels, songs, movies, etcetera., initiate associative processes based on the coactivation of social categories and social roles. Information from multiple sources increase confidence in stereotypes.

Studies have found that stereotypes of many categories could be predicted by the attributes associated with their typical occupational roles. For example, it was found that the stereotype of ‘the rich’ was similar to the attributes of the roles of corporate executives, doctors, and bankers, in which ‘the rich’ are overrepresented. There is also a link between social roles and stereotypes. For instance, when a gay man was portrayed in a highly male-dominated occupational role, his ascribed traits shifted from a less feminine to a more masculine direction. Roles can thus influence the stereotypes that are associated with social categories. Stereotypes that are formed are easily maintained and reinforced. As an example of a vicious cycle, consider the stereotype that Asian Americans are smart and good at math. These beliefs stem from observations of Asian Americans’ frequent presence in occupational roles in technology and science. People tend to be biased to confirm their expectations, for example by seeking stereotype-consistent information. This can also lead to that Asian Americans are privileged, in that they have higher access to roles requiring technical and mathematical competence. However, it also restricts their access to roles that require other qualities, such as leadership roles, which are defined by qualities such as assertiveness and competitiveness. Another way in which stereotyping can induce a cycle is that, roles can be shaped to fit the stereotype of the people.

How can stereotypes be changed?

In a meta-analyses of interventions aimed at changing stereotypes, it was found that there is little evidence of efficacy of these interventions. It seems that multiple interventions over long time are necessary to produce enduring change. Most diversity-training interventions in organizations have also not been effective in reducing discriminatory behavior. The basic weakness of these interventions is that they attempt to cut off the weeds (stereotypes) at the ground, instead of digging them out by the roots. This means that the weeds will grow back. Thus, it is necessary to change the roles in which category members are typically observed, to roles that require different attributes. For example, women’s increasing labour-force participation and education during the years 1946-2018 lead to that they were associated with a gain in competence. Thus, changing social roles is an effective route to changing stereotypes. However, this is an incremental process which does not happen quickly. It happens when one or more well-qualified persons take on an unfamiliar role. Governments and organizations should facilitate the entry of persons from underrepresented social categories into new roles, as this can help to accelerate stereotype change. Well-designed interventions can thus encourage people to enter non-traditional roles by providing information and support. Some programs motivate young people to undertake careers that are unusual for their social category.

What can be concluded?

Stereotypes arise from observations of members of social categories that act within their usual roles. Changing stereotypes and reducing prejudice requires changing the roles that are typically occupied by category members. Without such role change, a vicious cycle will continue to repeat itself. Social policies must be targeted at inducing this change in social roles.