Cultural Psychology by S.J. Heine (third edition) – Summary chapter 8

In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, there are different needs and motivations.

One problem with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that it is phrased in Western terms.

People with an independent self-concept attempt to achieve the connectedness motivation through securing uniqueness. People with an interdependent self-concept attempt to achieve the connectedness motivation through acting consistently with others.

The preference for uniqueness or fitting in also differs between social classes in the same culture (e.g. American working-class and American middle-class).

The promotion orientation refers to concerns over advancing oneself. People with an independent self-concept focus on self-esteem and this is related to the promotion orientation and the idea of an inalienable dignity that individuals have.

The prevention orientation refers to concerns over losing face and attending to one’s weaknesses and correcting them. Face refers to the amount of social value others give a person if that person lives up to the standards associated with the position. Face is determined by position and is difficult to increase and easy to lose. People with an interdependent self-concept focus on face and this is related to the prevention orientation.

It is unclear whether the self-esteem need is universal or linked to the self-concept. The cultural norm for an independent self when describing oneself is achieving high self-esteem, whereas the cultural norm for an interdependent self when describing oneself is modesty. 

The self-enhancement motivation is achieved by engaging in different strategies:

The self-serving bias refers to the belief that oneself is above average. Compensatory self-enhancement refers to acknowledging negative self-related information but focusing on other domains with more positive outcomes.

Differences in self-views emerge because the cultural context teaches self-enhancement motivations and the cultural environment provides different opportunities for learning whether positive self-views are desirable or not.

The entity theory of the world states that the world is fixed and beyond our control to change. The incremental theory of the world states that the world is flexible and responsive to our efforts to change it. The entity theory is more prevalent in people with an interdependent self-concept. The incremental theory of the world is more prevalent in people with an independent self-concept.

There are two forms of control:

1. Primary control (disjoint agency and incremental theory of the world)
   This type of control consists of shaping the existing reality to fit with one’s perceptions, goals and wishes.
2. Secondary control (conjoint agency and entity theory of the world)
   This type of control consists of adjusting aspects of the self and accept the circumstances as they are.

Primary control is seen as more powerful in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures. People in individualistic cultures tend to feel forces when they are in a secondary control situation, whereas this is not the case for people from collectivistic cultures. Westerners tend to see their actions as choices.

People in collectivistic cultures find making choices more difficult (1), take more time making choices (2), do not respond negatively when they are deprived of a choice (3) and generally have less free choice (4).

Models of agency refer to implicit theories used to make meaning about action and includes descriptive and normative understandings of how and why people act. There are two ways in which people exert agency:

1. Disjoint agency (individuals as agents)
   This type of agency holds that actions should be freely chosen, contingent on own preferences, goals, intentions and motives. It is believed that the decisions are independent of others and the choice is seen as a free, autonomous choice and the expression of individual preferences.
2. Conjoint agency (collectives as agents)
   This type of agency holds that actions are responsive to obligations, expectations from others, roles and situations. It is believed that the preferences, goals and intentions are interpersonally anchored and the choice is seen as freely acting to meet the perceived requirement in consideration of others.

People conform because of the social costs of not conforming, including being disliked (1) and being laughed at (2). The motivations to fit in and conform are stronger in cultural contexts that encourage people to maintain strong relationships with others.

Learned helplessness refers to a situation in which an individual feels that he is unable to control or avoid unpleasant events and the person will suffer from stress and depression.