General information about the course: What is the goal of POCP?

We are raised with the idea that our dream job is easy to get. We gain a more realistic perspective with age. ‘Career orientation is not a choice, but a process that requires constant managing.’ This course aims to teach skills useful in this process. Your career is influenced by negative as well as positive life-changing events. Our motives and ambitions with regard to our careers can also change.

What are the central questions in this course?

This course focuses on two central questions: 1) what can I expect from my future professional environment? And 2) what will my future professional environment expect from me?

How will the course be composed?

The course consists of two modules: Module 1 is about career perspectives and the professional environment. Module 2 will be about our own role in the professional environment. During the lectures, the literature will be explained, which will be used as content in the take-home tests and module assignments. The following events we should attend at least one of to complete the career orientation assignment: SPS/NIP Congress on 22/11/2019, FLO Day on 4/3/2020, and/or PTP/Experience your future congress 20/3/2020.

Lecture 1.1, What do we know about succesful career development?

What is the theory of planned happenstance? (Mitchell, Levin & Krumbolz, 1999)

Planned happenstance refers to the idea that much of what happens to our career is based on chance events; however, we are able to seize and generate these chance events. This means that we can’t just sit back and relax, waiting for the perfect opportunity in our career. We should generate chance events (exploration) and seize chance events (with skills that enables us to grab those opportunities)

What are useful characterstics to have in the process of career development?

Researchers have formulated five general characteristics that help to seize opportunities: curiosity, persistence, flexibility, optimism and risk-taking. Students that have already decided on their major score higher on questions of curiosity, persistence, optimism and risk-taking. Undecided students scored higher on flexibility. Flexibility refers to the belief that much of your career is determined by chance. It is the willingness to go along with this. Open-mindedness is an important aspect. It refers to a sensibility given the uncertainty of the future, characterized by curiosity. However; there is a fine line between open-mindedness and indecisiveness and procrastination.

How can we make use of the theory of planned happenstance?

At first, we should try to understand how planned happenstance was part of our past. Then, we transform curiosity into opportunities for learning; we should be open-minded. Thirdly, we should produce desirable chance events, by visiting websites of interest, taking interesting classes, conducting informal interviews and attending career events. Lastly, we should overcome barriers to action: Common barriers are the lack of the aforementioned five skills, seeing problems as overwhelming, fearing reactions of other, resistance to change, stress and unproductive coping strategies.

What are productive coping styles? (Lipshits-Braziler et al., 2016)

According to research, there are three coping styles: 1. Productive coping; characterized by instrumental and emotional information-seeking, problem solving, flexibility, accommodation and self-regulation. 2. Support-seeking; characterized by instrumental and emotional information-seeking and delegation. It can either be a productive or nonproductive way of coping. 3. Nonproductive coping; characterized by a tendency to escape, helplessness, isolation, submission and opposition. Lipshits-Braziler et al. (2016) found that ‘productive coping is positively related to career decidedness and non-productive coping is negatively related to career decidedness’. Career orientation is not about the decision, but about the process. Undecidedness can be a sign of open-mindedness and flexibility, but also of unproductive coping strategies.

What are adaptive career behaviors? (Lent & Brown, 2013)

Adaptive career behaviors consist of actions that people employ to help their own education and career. Proactive behaviors are in anticipation of an upcoming career choice moment. Reactive behaviors occur in response to unexpected events. Career behaviors depend on the stage where one is in: The exploration stage is characterized by exploring career paths, and making career relevant decisions. The establishment stage consists of managing work-family-life conflicts. The maintenance stage is about building a job niche, and forging a specialist role. During the disengagement stage, we prepare for retirement or encore our career.

What is self-efficacy?

Self-efficacy are our personal beliefs about your own ability to perform adaptive career behaviors. Task-specific self-efficacy refers to attitudes such as “I am able to complete this bachelor”. Coping self-efficacy refers to attitudes such as “I can take obstacles when they come my way”. Process self-efficacy refers to attitudes such as “I am able to manage my career and make career decisions”. Outcome expectations are beliefs about the consequences of performing certain behaviors. Self-efficacy and outcome expectation form our goals, which leads to our actions, leading to outcomes. Goals, actions and outcomes are influenced by personality variables and contextual support and barriers. What can we do to increase our self-efficacy? We should learn about our interests, attend career events, do self-insight tests, look for job advertisements, develop your (job application) skills and talk to psychologists.

Bullet-point summary:

• Planned happenstance refers to the idea that much of what happens to our career is based on chance events; however, we are able to seize and generate these chance events. 
• Researchers have formulated five general characteristics that help to seize opportunities: curiosity, persistence, flexibility, optimism and risk-taking.
• According to research, there are three coping styles: productive coping, non-productive coping, and support-seeking (which can either be productive or non-productive).
• Adaptive career behaviors consist of actions that people employ to help their own education and career. Proactive behaviors are in anticipation of an upcoming career choice moment. Reactive behaviors occur in response to unexpected events.
• Careers have different stages: 1. exploration, 2. establishment, 3. maintenance, and 4. disengagement.
• Self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about your own ability to perform adaptive career behaviors. We distinguish task-specific self-efficacy, coping self-efficacy, and process self-efficacy.
• Self-efficacy and outcome expectations --> goals --> actions --> outcomes

Three questions:

• What topics are covered in this lecture?

This lecture covers the theory of planned happenstance. It describes the useful characteristics a person can have for succesful career development. The lecturer talked about productive and unproductive coping styles, and how these influence our career outcomes. Adaptive career behaviors; which are closely related to this topic, were discussed as well. Self-efficacy is an important factor in our career development.

• What topics are covered that are not included in the literature?

This lecture mainly covered important career theories. The general information, however, was also part of the first lecture: It contains important information for the student.

• What recent development are discussed?

There were no recent development discussed during this lecture, besides the mentioned theories.

Lecture 1.2, What is career management?

Career management is influenced by your level of adaptability; how much you’re prepared to try out new things, your employability; how much you are and feel prepared for reality, and career resilience; how much you’re prepared to try again.

What are different traditional perspectives on careers? (Van Vianen, De Pater & Preenen, 2009)

A traditional career theory is the theory of PE (personality-environment)-fit: People finally fulfill jobs that fit their personality profile best. Another theory, the social cognitive career theory by Lent, Brown & Hackett states that people pursue careers where they expect positive outcomes. According to the maxicycle theory by Super, people go through stages of growth and exploration in the beginning of their career, and their careers have a rather predictable endpoint. The common denominators in these traditional career theories are that people themselves are active shapers of their career development. Careers evolve a fixed line and include a fair amount of predictability. At some point, all people arrive at a stage of stabilization. 

What are current perspectives on careers?

However, traditional linear careers become less and less common. ‘Future careers will include periodic shifts between work activities, jobs and occupational areas’, according to DeFillipi & Arthur (1994). We speak of career adaptability. We consider to requirements for decision-making: The first is that the chosen option should be at least minimally attractive. The second is that the chosen option must be relatively better than other options. Satisfaction with our choices is influenced by the cultural standards, the number of alternatives, accountability and our own perception of irreversibility. The advice that is given to students is to aim for something that is good, but not something that is perfect. Students should limit their number of alternatives, try to perceive choices as opportunities, and try to have faith in that new opportunities will arise. Career indecision is more prevalent nowadays, because of the wide variety of possible choices and because the decisions we make are solely based on rational strategies when in fact the reality of the world is very unpredictable. Choices should be made on rational and intuitive strategies. Students can increase their career adaptability by thinking in mini-cycles, aim for the good, focus on the (possible) positive outcomes, develop self-efficacy, and realize that career adaptability is a life-long learning process.

How do we influence our employability? (Direnzo & Greenhaus, 2011)

Employability is the capacity to control one’s employment options through the creation, identification and realization of career opportunities. Turnover is dependent on the desirability of movement and the ease of movement. Job search consists of gaining insight in the current employability and increasing one’s control over these career options. The comparative process is about the comparison of the current and the desired employability. When there is a positive discrepancy, one’s confidence is boosted. When there is a negative discrepancy, one should engage in adaptive behaviors to increase career competencies.

What are career competencies and how do they influence our employability?

Career competencies are about knowing how (human capital), knowing whom (social capital) and why (psychological capital). Knowing why is like a compass that can navigate career opportunities. Employability is dependent on the capacity to make career transitions. Being psychologically mobile means to feel capable, as well physically and emotionally, to make a career transition. High psychological mobility is related to more job search activities. To increase your employability, you should increase your career competencies, employability, psychological mobility, job search activities, your career strategy behavior and turnover.

What does career resilience mean and why is it useful? (Mishra & McDonald, 2017)

Career resilience is the ability to bounce back from adversity. It is also referred to as the developmental process of persisting, adapting and/or flourishing in one’s career despite challenges, changing events and disruptions over time. Personal factors like individual characteristics, skills, attitudes, behaviors, habits and prior experience; combined with contextual factors like job characteristics, the support system at home and at work, influence career resilience. Interaction between the individual and the broader context is important in this process. The skills we speak about are related to efficacy and self-esteem. Coping is dependent on many personal characteristics, like personality, skills and attitudes. Career resilience is very relevant for individual career development and management. Strategies for increasing your career resilience include obtaining general employability skills, obtaining support from your employer and social network and practicing and evaluating coping strategies and learn from these results.

Bullet-point summary:

• Career management is influenced by your level of adaptability, your employability and career resilience.
• Traditional linear careers become less and less common. ‘Future careers will include periodic shifts between work activities, jobs and occupational areas'.
• Career indecision is more prevalent nowadays.
• Students can increase their career adaptability by thinking in mini-cycles, aim for the good, focus on the (possible) positive outcomes, develop self-efficacy, and realize that career adaptability is a life-long learning process.
• Employability is the capacity to control one’s employment options through the creation, identification and realization of career opportunities.
• When there is a positive discrepancy in the comparative process, one’s confidence is boosted. When there is a negative discrepancy, one should engage in adaptive behaviors to increase career competencies.
• To increase your employability, you should increase your career competencies, employability, psychological mobility, job search activities, your career strategy behavior and turnover.
• Personal factors like individual characteristics, skills, attitudes, behaviors, habits and prior experience; combined with contextual factors like job characteristics, the support system at home and at work, influence career resilience.
• Strategies for increasing your career resilience include obtaining general employability skills, obtaining support from your employer and social network and practicing and evaluating coping strategies and learn from these results.

Three questions:

• What topics are covered in this lecture?

This lecture covered the topic of career management, and how traditional and contemporary career theories quite differ in their view on this process. Personal employability and other career competencies are influential in the process of career management. This lecture describes these terms and explains how we can manage these characteristics. Lastly, this lecture explains how the characteristic of career resilience is essential as well.

• What topics are covered that are not included in the literature?

All theories were listed as literature in the reading list.

• What recent development are discussed?

Comtemporary career theories are compared with more traditional career theories.

Lecture 2.1, How do psychologists engage in problem solving?

In any future profession, psychologists are expected to think on an academic level and engage in efficient problem solving. In problem solving, you first define the problem and then determine what an appropriate solution/therapy/intervention would be. Psychologists use their scientific knowledge to tackle a variety of problems.

What does the course of POCP aim to learn us about problem solving?

The goals of the second module of Perspective on Career Planning, are to 1) learn how to analyze problems and offer theory-based solutions, 2) learn to pitch your problem analysis and solution to a panel of professionals from the field, 3) experience how professionals react to your problem analysis, and 4) learn what ethical dilemmas may arise and how to handle them. Today’s lecture will focus on how to analyze a problem and generate a theory-based solution.

How is behavior changed most effectively? (Michie et al., 2008)

This article states that interventions are more effective if they target the cause of behavior. Using scientific theory is useful, as it informs us of the most likely causes. Theory-based interventions help to test and further develop theories and help us understand what “works”. Problems are analyzed using scientific theories, but solutions are often based on “common sense” and creativity because they need to fit the situation or the individual. Scientific theories itself sometimes do not offer concrete solutions. In those cases, practitioners should use other scientific literature to find tools to address their problems. This article explains the importance of theory-based solutions in the introduction. In appendix A, a long list of behavior change techniques is proposed. In appendix B, suggestions for what type of problems each technique is effective for are proposed.

What are various behavior change techniques? (Moseley and Stoker, 2013)

This article discusses various behavior change techniques as well. It acknowledges that people are unable to process all relevant information, fully understand a situation and determine all possible consequences. This is referred to with the term bounded rationality. ‘Nudging’ is a psychological behavior change technique that influences what people pay attention to. Framing is a technique that highlights aspects of the situation in order to influence people’s behavior (also referred to as nudging). An example is that healthy products are presented at the top in the supermarket and presented in a visually appealing way. Persuasion is a technique that alters people’s beliefs about an issue in order to influence their behavior. An example is convincing people of the benefits of healthy eating. Norm creation is another method that alters group or societal norms about an issue in order to influence people’s behavior. An example is creating a social norm tat prescribes healthy eating.

How can we use scientific theories in problem solving?

In the remainder of this lecture, we will focus on the following questions: How can I use scientific theory to analyze problems? How can I use this problem analysis to generate solutions? How can I convince my client that my solution is a good one? In choosing factors for an intervention plan, we should focus on factors that fall within our psychological area of expertise: Moreover, we should focus on factors that can be changed by interventions that are realistic, feasible and affordable. Interventions should always be derived from a process model: Predictors, via mediators, lead to outcomes. To effectively present your problem and gain the trust of your client, we should first briefly summarize the problem. Then we should present a clear and concise process model based on a scientific theory. We should make sure that our intervention plan is visibly derived from this process model. Lastly, we should make sure that our intervention plan is realistic, feasible, affordable, and convincingly effective.

What is the PATH model? (Buunk and Van Vugt, 2007)

This article proposed the PATH-model, which is a problem-solving model: The first step is to clearly formulate the problem. Secondly, analysis of this problem is needed. Thirdly, we test this model and perfect it. Fourth, we apply the technique: help.

Bullet-point summary:

• In any future profession, psychologists are expected to think on an academic level and engage in efficient problem solving. In problem solving, you first define the problem and then determine what an appropriate solution/therapy/intervention would be.
• Michie and colleagues (2018) state that interventions are more effective if they target the cause of behavior. Problems are analyzed using scientific theories, but solutions are often based on “common sense” and creativity because they need to fit the situation or the individual.
• Moseley and Stoker (2013) state that people are unable to process all information that is present perfectly. In targeting behavior changes, psychologists can make use of framing (also called nudging), persuasion, and norm creation.
• In choosing factors for an intervention plan, we should focus on factors that fall within our psychological area of expertise: Moreover, we should focus on factors that can be changed by interventions that are realistic, feasible and affordable.
• Interventions are always based on process models.
• Buunk and Van Vugt (2007) proposed the PATH-model as a solution seeking method.

Three questions:

• What topics are covered in this lecture?

This lecture teaches about problem solving and how behavior is changed most effectively. In order to do this, the lecturer discussed various behavior change techniques. It relates these scientific techniques to real life by asking the question how we can make use of them to effectively solve problems. Lastly, the PATH model is discussed.

• What topics are covered that are not included in the literature?

This lecture does not only discuss the most important theories about problem solving and behavior change techniques. The lecturer started the lecture by explaining why this is important to us as newby psychologists: We are expected to think on an academic level and tackle problems effectively. The lecturer linked the theory to how we can make use of, for example, the discussed behavior change techniques.

• What recent development are discussed?

This lecture does not include information about very recent developments.

Lecture 2.2, How do ethics influence psychology?

Ethics is the method of systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. There are many kinds of ethics; but today we will focus on applied ethics. This lecture will discuss how to apply ethical theory to real-life situations and make an analysis of specific, controversial moral issues. The focus of the lecture is on ethics: It is not about ‘good’ or ‘bad’. As a psychologist, there are several ethical principles you have to comply with. In the US the American Psychological Association (APA) principles and in the Netherlands the NIP (Nederlands Insituut van Psychologen) code of conduct apply. The central question is: How can we make sure we do not harm people? To some extent, this will always involve a personal judgment of the ethical principles.

What are the APA guidelines?

For international students operating outside the Nederlands, the APA is the basic guideline for ethical principles. The first ethical guidelines were adopted in 1953. The APA has general principles rather than ethical standard: A) Beneficence and nonmaleficence (do not harm, seek welfare, and do not misuse your influence); B) Fidelity and responsibility (be aware of your societal responsibility, be clear in your roles, and monitor each other); C) Integrity (promote truthfulness and do not deceive); D) Justice (exercise reasonable judgment and take precaution so biases and limitations to expertise do not lead to unjust practices); E) Respect for people’s rights and dignity (protect the weak who cannot make autonomous decisions, be aware of differences and avoid prejudices).

What is principle A – Beneficence and nonmaleficence, about?

Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. In their professional actions, psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. Because psychologists’ scientific and professional judgments and actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal, financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. Psychologists strive to be aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help those with whom they work.

What is principle B – Fidelity and responsibility, about?

Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work. Psychologists uphold professional standard of conduct. Psychologists consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions. They are concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues’ scientific and professional conduct. Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage.

What is principle C – Integrity, about?

Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. Psychologists do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their promises and to avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of such techniques.

What is principle D – Justice, about?

Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions to ensure that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices.

What is principle E – Respect, about?

Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the right and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision-making. Psychologists are ware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices.

What is the NIP Code of Ethics?

The NIP Code of Ethics has four basic principles: Responsibility (recognize their professional and scientific responsibilities over their conduct, and avoid abuse); integrity (demonstrate honesty, equal treatment and openness, and provide clarity about roles): respect (to the fundamental rights and dignity, and respect the right to privacy and confidentiality); and expertise (aim to acquire a high level of expertise and take limits of own expertise into account). 

What are common violations of these principles?

Most of the APA violations that occur fall in the category of sexual misconduct with adult clients (29%). Insurance and fee problems are common as well (21%). Principles are goals to achieve the highest psychological ideals. It is however not always completely clear which principle applies in a situation. Standards are enforceable behavioral guidelines concerning teaching, research, therapy, counseling, testing and other professional roles and responsibilities. 

What do the different APA standards state?

APA Standard 1 states that psychologists must report misuse of their work; they should clarify, report, and try to fix conflicts between ethics and laws, regulations and organizations. Psychologists should report and solve ethical violations, and cooperate when under investigation. APA Standard 2 is competence: meaning that psychologists should make sure that their personal problems do not interfere with their work. They should also work within the limits of what they were trained to do, maintain this competence, and use scientific information to make decisions. APA Standard 3 relates to human relations: Psychologists should not discriminate, harass or cause harm to the people with whom they are working. Having multiple relationships with a client can become troublesome. APA Standard 4 is privacy and confidentiality. Psychologists should take reasonable precautions to maintain confidentiality, discuss the limits of confidentiality, and get permission for example before making recordings. They cannot release confidential info unless consent is provided. APA Standard 5 relates to advertising and other public statements: Psychologists should not make public statements that are false or misleading, and make sure that advertisements are accurate. APA Standard 6 relates to the proper record keeping and fees. APA Standard 7 is about education and training. Psychologists can’t, for example, make a student disclose personal information about previous experiences except when it is a requirement or it is needed to evaluate problems that might interfere with their participation. APA Standard 8 is about research and publication. Psychologists should make sure that publication intentions are made clear in the informed consent. Exceptions are possible, but anonymity needs to be guaranteed. If it is necessary, debriefing can be required. Psychologists should not fabricate data and avoid plagiarism. APA Standard 9 relates to assessment; they should be data driven and if accurate data is not available this indicates limitations to the report. Psychologists should use valid and reliable tests in the manner they were designed. Informed consent is required for the assessment, and psychologists cannot release test data to others than approved by the client (unless court ordered). Psychologists should take into account the person tested as well as the data when interpreting the results. Only use psychometrically sound methods that are qualified and describe the psychometrics of the tests you use. Then, explain the results in a way that the client understands. APA Standard 10 refers to therapy. Psychologists can’t fool around with their clients or those directly around them. They should wait for at least two years before engaging in sexual relationships with a former client.

What are modern issues with the APA standards?

Some modern issues regarding the APA standards can be the following questions: Can psychologists Google their patients? Psychologists should make clear boundaries with respect to patient interaction on the Internet. Psychologists can’t interact with their clients via social media.

Bullet-point summary:

• As a psychologist, there are several ethical principles you have to comply with. In the US the American Psychological Association (APA) principles and in the Netherlands the NIP (Nederlands Insituut van Psychologen) code of conduct apply.
• The APA has general principles rather than ethical standards: A) Beneficence and nonmaleficence, B) fidelity and responsibility, C) integrity, D) justice; and E) respect for people’s rights and dignity.
• The NIP Code of Ethics has four basic principles: responsbility, integrity, respect, and expertise.
• Principles are goals to achieve the highest psychological ideals. It is however not always completely clear which principle applies in a situation.

Three questions:

• What topics are covered in this lecture?

This lecture discusses the necessity of ethics in the field of psychology, and especially the field of clinical psychology. It describes the two most important classes of principles that will apply to us later on; namely the NIP Code of Ethics and the APA principles.

• What topics are covered that are not included in the literature?

The introduction of this lecture was not included in the literature: It describes ethics in general and why they apply so much to the field of psychology.

• What recent development are discussed?

The latest NIP Code of Ethics and the latest APA guidelines were discussed. There were no recent developments discussed.