Psychology and the New Media - Article Summary [UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM]
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There is no consensus on the amount of media exposure of a person although it appears to be great in Western cultures. Violence is often defined as the overt expression of physical force. More than 60% of television programmes contain violence. However, it is not clear how violence is represented in television programmes, as the context, emphasis and frequency can differ.
Exposure to violent media increases the incidence of aggressive behaviour, although there is less evidence for an increase in criminal violence. However, this evidence comes from experimental settings and it is difficult to generalize this type of aggression to real-life.
Cross-sectional surveys demonstrate that exposure to violent television and movies are related to aggression. The relation between exposure to media violence and real-life aggression cannot be explained by aggressive individuals seeking out violent programmes.
Meta-analyses demonstrate that exposure to violent media increases the level of aggressive and anti-social behaviour.
There are several factors that may strengthen or weaken the impact of media violence:
There are several theories of media violence:
Indirect aggression is normally not used in research into media violence and might play an important role in the effect between media violence and behaviour. The exposure to violent pornography might also have a number of harmful effects. Viewing pornography is related to attitudes to rape victims.
The general aggression model states that violent video games produce aggressive thoughts, feelings and increased arousal. It suggests that exposure to video game violence influences behaviour and personality over time by increasing the accessibility of violent scripts or mental representations for how to act in a situation, and increasingly insensitivity to violence. This model assumes a causal role of violent video games in violence. However, this model is not greatly supported.
The catalyst model takes one’s predisposition to aggression and violence into account. It states that individuals genetically predisposed to aggression and violence will be more likely to consume violent media and will be more easily provoked to violence when experiencing environmental stress. This model does not assume a causal role of violent video games in violence.
It appears as if competitiveness and not violence plays an important role in the relationship between violent videogames and aggression. The hot-sauce paradigm and the noise-blast paradigm have been used in order to measure aggression. However, there may be several flaws of the noise-blast paradigm:
Trends in crime rates do not coincide with trends in violent media exposure. A good theory is comprehensive (1), consistent with other theories (2), precise (3), falsifiable (4) and has practical application (5).
There are several fallacies in a politically charged debate:
Psychological reactance refers to the feeling that one’s freedom of choice might be restricted or infringed upon. This influences attitudes. The third-person effect refers to the belief that something has an effect on others but not on oneself.
There is no consensus on the amount of media exposure of a person although it appears to be great in Western cultures. Violence is often defined as the overt expression of physical force. More than 60% of television programmes contain violence. However, it is not clear how violence is represented in television programmes, as the context, emphasis and frequency can differ.
Exposure to violent media increases the incidence of aggressive behaviour, although there is less evidence for an increase in criminal violence. However, this evidence comes from experimental settings and it is difficult to generalize this type of aggression to real-life.
Cross-sectional surveys demonstrate that exposure to violent television and movies are related to aggression. The relation between exposure to media violence and real-life aggression cannot be explained by aggressive individuals seeking out violent programmes.
Meta-analyses demonstrate that exposure to violent media increases the level of aggressive and anti-social behaviour.
There are several factors that may strengthen or weaken the impact of media violence:
There are several theories of media violence:
Medium refers to anything that is used by humans to communicate some kind of message.
McQuail states that there are four elements that determine the emergence of a mass medium:
McLuhan argued that it is not possible to separate medium and message. He also argued that media can be seen as an extension of man as a medium can be seen as any phenomenon that changed the way we go about the world (e.g. electric light). This means that a medium is a phenomenon that changes meaning of something in the world. According to McLuhan, each medium that emerges needs to be treated as an entirely new cultural phenomenon.
Before the twentieth century, the newspapers emerged which were fixated on advertisements, followed by the development of magazines, which were also fixated on advertisements. After the twentieth century, radio, television and telephones emerged, which were new forms of mass media.
New media distinguishes computer-based media from broadcast media (e.g. radio). There are two phases of web technology; web 1.0 and web 2.0. Web 2.0 refers to media that appeared in the mid to late 2000s (e.g. social networking sites). Media literacy refers to sorting out reliable, useful information from junk, marketing and lies. Media blindness refers to being unable to locate the source of the information we acquire and confuse our actual experiences with mediated experiences.
The media effects approach in research focusses on the effects media imposes on the individual. It is mostly based on experimental research.
There are two objections to the media effects approach:
Brain imaging can be used to draw conclusions based on the experimental research (i.e. media effects approach).
The hypodermic needle theory states that media ‘injects’ itself in the brain to influence an individual. This theory is based on the effects propaganda can have on a society which mainly uses one form of mass media (e.g. radio). Over time, however, people become increasingly media literate.
The excitation transfer theory states that media (e.g. violent films) raises adrenaline in people without the people recognizing the source of their heightened excitement, leading people to overreact in certain situations. This is similar to priming. However, this theory is only focused on the interpretation of physiological changes and does not include personality.
Most media effect theories assumed that the individual is a passive observer of media, rather than a user of media.
The uses and gratifications theory (U&G) states that the individual is a media user rather than a passive observer.
.....read morePeople’s cognitions about racial/ethnic minority group are influenced by media. People engage in social categorization and often use stereotypes for people who do not share similar social group memberships to reinforce the status quo. Stereotypes are also used to justify existing social hierarchies.
Different minority groups are represented in different ways in the media:
There is a relationship between exposure to racial/ethnic portrayals in the media and evaluations of race/ethnicity in terms of social roles, pro-minority policies and stereotype consistent race-related attitudes and beliefs.
Exposure to media stereotypes of racial/ethnic minorities may increase individuals’ propensity to making prejudicial real-world judgments of these groups. Racial stereotyping may also increase after exposure to stereotypes of racial/ethnic minorities in videogames. Exposure to stereotypes of minorities in the media may result in negative real-world judgements that deviate from the media stereotype but are representative of other minority stereotypes (e.g. lazy Latino stereotype makes the Latino lover stereotype more salient).
Exposure
.....read moreCrime is often portrayed in mass media because of the steady supply of events (1), the ease of gathering information (2) and the inherent interest among readers and viewers (3). Mass media does not accurately reflect crime in a country or in a region because some crimes are more likely to be reported on than other crimes.
There are five factors that make events more newsworthy:
There are subfactors that determine when an event receives coverage:
These factors are related to psychological processes as people attend more to things that have personal relevance (1), things that are vivid (2), things that contain action and conflict (3) and things that are novel or unexpected (4).
The consequences of this selection is that mundane events are underreported (1), violent crimes are reported more than property crimes (2) and crimes committed by strangers are reported on more (3).
Television news is often more about the visual impact of a crime than objective seriousness of the event. Fictional crimes on television are not representative for actual crimes as they grossly miscalculate how often certain crimes occur.
There is a downward trend of newspapers being published (1) and readership among adults (2). There are fewer local reports beyond what is easily available from police blotters and there are fewer in-depth investigative reports. There are also changing trends in how and what people view on television.
The Internet has the ability to remove the professional editor, publisher or producer from the information stream and make available a world-wide audience to anyone who cares to post a video, comment or analysis. This open access can also lead to fake news.
There are several relevant theories for media portrayals of crime:
The media plays an important role in shaping (gender) roles and behaviour. The media shapes perceptions and attitudes regarding gender roles. There are several differences between the genders in television representation:
There are more women in health- and beauty-related and household products in advertisements but not in other types of advertisements. Women characters are more likely to receive appearance-related comments whereas both women and men are equally likely to make them.
There is a drive towards thinness in media, as there are more positive comments about the body of an underweight character and characters on a diet are negative about their body weight. The ideal for women is thinness while the ideal for males is muscular or lean.
Individuals are not affected by the media in uniform ways but individual differences and situational variables shape media effects. Television contributes to relatively more stereotypical and traditional gender-related outlooks. Media has the potential to exert an influence on the overall view of gender held by individuals and the behaviours that emerge from those views.
Mainstreaming refers to the ability of television to reduce differences in individuals’ viewpoints that would typically be found based on demographics. Television can contribute to gender role attitudes that run counter to gender stereotypes in other cultural contexts (e.g. Arabs watching a lot of American television will have more egalitarian gender role attitudes than before watching it).
There are several media effects:
Persuasion refers to a process whereby a message sender intends to influence an message receiver’s evaluative judgements regarding a particular object.
Cognitive Response Models of Persuasion assume that the thoughts people have during message exposure drive their subsequent attitudes. Message recipients are active participants whose cognitive reactions mediate the influence of a persuasive attempt.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion states that there is a central and a peripheral route to persuasion. Central processing includes thoughtful consideration of the arguments and information and occurs when there is sufficient processing motivation and ability. The ratio of favourable to unfavourable cognitive responses generated about the message predicts the persuasive outcome. Peripheral processing includes heuristics will be used and occurs when there is insufficient processing motivation or ability. Attitude change based on central processing is more stable, enduring and predictive of behaviour.
Criticism of this model is the dichotomy between central and peripheral processing (1), the definition of argument strength (2) and the inability to specify whether particular message features will be processed centrally or peripherally (3). Thought confidence refers to the idea that confidence in one’s thoughts about the message intensifies their effect.
Chaiken’s heuristic-systematic model (HSM) of persuasion states accuracy-motivated people may assess message validity through heuristic and systematic processing. This may operate concurrently depending on the receiver’s judgemental confidence threshold for a particular issue. According to this model, individuals base decisions on heuristics if they can be sufficiently confident in the accuracy of those decisions.
Expectancy value theories assume that people have expectancies regarding whether an object has a certain attribute and they ascribe a particular value to that attribute. The combination of these assessments leads to the formation of an attitude.
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) states that behavioural intentions predict volitional behaviour. Behavioural intentions are based on attitudes toward performing a particular behaviour (1) and the subjective norm surrounding that behaviour (2). Attitudes are comprised of a group of salient beliefs regarding behavioural outcomes and evaluations of those outcomes. The subjective norm is comprised of perceptions of important others’ attitudes regarding one performing the behaviour and motivation to comply with their opinions.
Criticism of the theory of reasoned action are that the predictive validity is limited to volitional behaviours (1), stable attitudes and behavioural intentions (2) and corresponding attitude and behaviour measures in term of target, context, time and action (3). Another criticism is that it does not incorporate emotion.
The drive model states that fear is a drive state, motivating people to adopt recommendations expected to alleviate the unpleasant state. The parallel processing model states that people who focus on the threat (i.e. cognition) have adaptive responses to fear whereas people who respond with fear (i.e. emotion) have maladaptive responses. The expectancy value-based protection motivation theory states that thoughts generated in response to fear appeals can consist of judgement of threat severity (1), threat susceptibility (2), response
.....read moreMany people believe they can differentiate between actual news and fake news, although a small minority can actually do this. The spread of misinformation (i.e. fake news) has the potential to undermine science and society (e.g. democracy).
The inoculation theory states that by pre-emptively exposing people to a weakened version of an argument and subsequently refuting that argument, attitudinal resistance can be conferred against future persuasion attempts. In the case of fake news, this means that people are exposed to weak fake news which is then refuted in order to make people more ‘immune’ to other forms of fake news. In the theory, threat refers to the recognition that one’s attitude on an issue is vulnerable to attack. Refutational pre-emption refers to providing people with specific arguments to help resist persuasion attempts.
It appears to be effective when people are presented with both the arguments and the refutation. However, it may be more effective to use active refutation because internal counter-arguing is a more involved cognitive process.
The studies that showed the effectiveness of the theory used refutational-same schemes where people are inoculated against specific information to which they will be exposed later on. Refutational-different schemes refers to a format where the message refutes challenges that are not specifically featured in a subsequent attack.
It is possible that active inoculation reduces the perceived reliability and persuasiveness of previously unseen fake news articles.
Active inoculation reduces perceived reliability and persuasiveness of fake news articles. The active generation of counter-arguments elicits greater affect. This indicates higher engagement which is a key component of resistance. Early media education might be a viable method of inoculation to help empower people against the risk of disinformation.
The programmes on television have an enduring effect on the viewer. How it influences a person depends on the type of judgement required (1), television viewing frequency (2) and characteristics of the viewing experience (3). Television has the potential to influence normative perceptions (1) and attitudes, values and beliefs (2).
The cultivation theory states that the content of television programmes presents a systematic distortion of reality and that frequent exposure to these distorted images result in their internalization (e.g. learning the lessons of television; overestimating violence). A point of criticism regarding this theory is the ambiguity of the causal direction of the variables.
The reliability and validity of the cultivation effect are debated because the effects found are small (1), the effects are not consistently found (2) and statistically controlling for some variables (e.g. demographics) makes the effect non-significant (3). However, small effect sizes can be meaningful (1) and small effect sizes might mask larger effects within certain groups (2).
First-order cultivation measures refers to frequency and probability estimates of real-world facts after watching television. The first-order judgements are memory-based (i.e. formed by recalling information from memory). The second-order measures refers to belief measures. The second-order judgements are constructed through an online process (i.e. information that is being processed in real-time is used to update current judgements or construct new ones). An example of online judgements is forming an impression.
The difference is that the first-order cultivation measures can be objectively determined whilst the second-order measures are inherently subjective. First-order cultivation effects are larger and more reliable than second-order cultivation effects (1) and the two measures are uncorrelated (2).
The accessibility model for first-order cultivation effects assumes that television viewing increases the accessibility of information that pertains to typical cultivation judgments (e.g. violence) (1) and it assumes that memory-based judgements are constructed through heuristic processing.
It states that people employ the availability heuristic or the simulation heuristic. The simulation heuristic states that people base their estimates on the ease with which a relevant exemplar can be imagined when the availability heuristic cannot be used.
Media consumption may influence the accessibility of constructs that are commonly portrayed in television programmes. Differences in media consumption can influence levels of accessibility of relevant constructs.
The accessibility model makes five claims:
The cultivation effect refers to people who frequently watch television give higher estimates for frequency- or probability-based judgements than people who do not.
People do not discount the source when making general judgements (e.g. frequency of homicide) as people use television exemplars but do not do this knowingly and would not do this willingly. Source-discounting refers to taking the source into account when making judgements. This
.....read moreOnline dating sites frequently claim that people will achieve better romantic outcomes when seeking partners through a website than through conventional offline dating. However, there is no compelling evidence for this. The studies that did study this were severely flawed.
Dating websites gives access to a the existence of a lot of potential partners. This might solve the problem of perceived lack of access to potential partners of conventional dating. It also bypasses the uncertainty about whether a partner is romantically available (1) and the need for courage to approach a stranger (2). The degree to which the access provided by online dating sites yields romantic outcomes depends on how effective the access is at facilitating face-to-face contact with potentially compatible partners.
Online dating websites typically offer profiles rather than face-to-face contact (1), offer more potential partners (2) and present users with a large variety of potential partners. Assumptions regarding the benefit of access are that people have good insight in what partner qualities presented in a profile will actually appeal to them when they meet face-to-face (1), the side-by-side comparisons of multiple partners allows for means of evaluating one’s potential attraction to a partner (2) and people make better decisions when they have more choice (3).
It appears as if people are able to deduct desirability of a person from a photograph but cannot accurately judge unique compatibility with oneself. People often lack insight into why they like things. People tend to exhibit a disconnect between idiographic self-reports of the traits they desire and the traits that actually predicted romantic attraction to and relationship well-being with real-life partners.
People’s preferences predict who appeals to them in a profile but not in person. People can accurately discern more appealing people from others, based on profiles but cannot discern which characteristics will inspire attraction after meeting the person. This leads to some people receiving a lot of messages, leading to these people not replying anymore, meaning that browsing profiles is not a good method of evaluating compatibility with a partner.
Browsing partners leads people to joint evaluate; comparing multiple partners simultaneously. Pursuing a relationship with a particular partner puts people in separate evaluation mode; evaluating one specific partner. People often make choices in joint evaluation mode but experience the consequences in separate evaluation mode. In addition to this, people often prioritize different characteristics in joint evaluation mode than when in separate evaluation mode.
An assessment mindset emphasizes critical evaluation of entities, states or goals in comparison to available alternatives. It is associated with pursuing the optimal choice among an array of options (1), a less biased consideration of the pros and cons of alternatives (2) and more accurate forecasts about the future of a romantic relationship (3). However, it may not promote satisfying social interaction. This mindset may undermine relationship dynamics in relationships.
A locomotion mindset emphasizes committing psychological resources toward effective and pleasurable attainment of desired
.....read moreThe use of internet is common for terrorism. The instant connections over internet increase the opportunity for exposure to aggression for all participants. Internet also allows for the possibility of deeper, more narrow penetration both into content areas and into the private psychological spaces of users.
Terrorists use the internet to target specific segments of the population with more subtle and detailed information. There are three differences between how terrorists use the internet and other forms of media. On the internet:
The internet provides new tools for young aggressors who already engage in aggressive behaviours in the physical world to victimize a larger group of peers in cyberspace.
Aggression refers to a behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid the harm. Instrumental aggression refers to aggression that is used to attain goals. Hostile aggression refers to aggression where harm or injury to the target is the primary goal of the behaviour. This is associated with anger in response to frustration.
The network theory of emotions states that emotions, cognitions and action tendencies are connected in memory through association. The activation of one element van spread to other nodes in the associative network.
It is likely that instrumental and hostile aggression are a continuum. Aggression through the internet is more subtle and encompassing than overt forms of aggression (e.g. homicide with guns). Media exposure is a risk factor and not a unique cause of aggression.
Individuals with certain predispositions are likely to seek out media that are consistent with those pre-existing predispositions. This is, in turn, likely to strengthen those dispositions.
The general aggression model states that social situations represent an opportunity for learning. The learning that takes place is influenced by the interaction of person and situation variables. These learning encounters influence the internal state of the person and their appraisal of the environment and decisions and behaviours.
The fact that the internet is always on increases the possibility of extensive exposure to cognitive scripts and emotions potentially priming and motivating aggression. The risk for aggression may also increase through internet use because the internet is interactive.
Active participation of a violent video game increases aggressive behaviour. This especially occurred for games with high levels of interactivity and low-skilled players. Visiting violence-oriented websites may contribute to youths’ aggressiveness.
There are four important differences between passive exposure to media violence and interactive video game play:
Self-disclosure refers to the voluntary and verbal communication of personal information to the targeted recipient. It can differ with regards to frequency (1), breadth (2) and depth (3). The frequency of self-disclosure refers to the amount of information revealed. The breadth of disclosure refers to the range or diversity of self-disclosure topics. The depth of self-disclosure refers to the intimacy of personal information divulged.
The social penetration theory states that changes in self-disclosure between partners are integral to and indicative of relationship growth and decline. As a relationship progresses, there is a greater breadth and depth of disclosures.
The social identity model of deindividuation (SIDE) states that people have a personal and a social self. It states that the lack of individuating cues in online environments dilutes the perception of difference between partners engaged in social exchanges, making social identity salient and others’ behaviours are seen as representative of the group norm. Self-disclosure thus results from perceived norms of self-disclosure. The social context dictates the influences of perceived norms of self-disclosure.
The hyperpersonal CMC theory states that a lack of individuating cues in online environments allows participants greater control in their self-representation (1) and can create idealized perceptions of their partner (2). This can lead to the perception of an exaggerated intimacy, leading to more self-disclosure.
The reduced cues theory (RCT) states that cues are indicative of the social context and its associated norms and behavioural etiquette. In online environments, people self-disclosure more because the cues of the immediate reaction of the partner are absent (e.g. non-verbal cues, situational cues).
The social information processing theory (SIP) states that cues are conduits for communication, not representatives of social norms. There is increased self-disclosure online because there are less means of communicating (e.g. no non-verbal cues as a means of communication). The information stays constant but the methods of communication are reduced online.
The media richness theory (MRT) states that every medium can be ranked on a richness continuum and the richer a medium, the more information can and will be transmitted. This means that there will be more self-disclosure in FTF interactions as that is a richer form of communicating. Richness refers to the degree to which a communication medium allows feedback, a range of communication channels and is personal.
Empirical evidence does not clearly support one theory. There is a greater frequency of self-disclosure in CMC than FTF. There is no clear result for the breadth of self-disclosure in CMC. There is also no clear result for the depth of self-disclosure in CMC.
Synchronous and asynchronous (1) and personality (2) should be taken into account when assessing self-disclosure theories.
Connected presence refers to people always being online and connected to others. Online communication offers tools to generate relatedness when physical presence is not possible. Partner phubbing refers to the extent to which an individual uses or is distracted by one’s cell phone while in the company of the relationship partner. This could undermine relationship satisfaction, commitment, intimacy and closeness.
There are three important stages for relationships:
In the first stage, the nature of the relationship is determined. One important goal of this stage is uncertainty reduction. This can be achieved through passive strategies (e.g. observation) (1), active strategies (e.g. talking to others) (2) and interactive strategies (e.g. talk with the person) (3).
Online communication has amplified the potential for dating partners to engage in communication employing any of the three strategies. Mobile devices ease the obstacles of first real contact and makes ongoing contact easier.
The perceived risk and costs of examining possible partners is also lower in online dating because rejection is nearly invisible. Online dating requires low effort and engagement, allowing to maintain contact with multiple partners.
Virtual relationships tend to be less intimate than face-to-face relationships. Online devices also opens ways to test strategies and experiment with ideas on how to get into contact and start a relationship and how to display affection and how to maintain high frequency contact. Electronic communication allows for greater control. The greater control leads to less anxiety in online contact.
The maintenance stage is characterized by strategic communication to ensure the continued existence and desired level of closeness in the relationship. There are several strategies of relationship maintenance:
Communication among partners that is intensified through permanent or frequent online exchange contributes to positive outcomes. The quantity and quality of phone calls have positive effects on relationship commitment, love, relational certainty, partner idealization, relationship satisfaction and intimacy.
Couple-specific codes and patterns of online communication can strengthen the shared social identity of being part of a romantic partnership. This contributes to its stabilization and maintenance.
Sexting refers to sending and receiving sexually suggestive images, videos or texts via mobile devices. Online communication makes the sexual dimension of intimate relationships more accessible and relevant to both partners throughout the day and expands the space of opportunities to negotiate and enjoy sexual interaction beyond episodes of face-to-face contact.
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The storage of personal information is durable and the ability to aggregate, analyse and draw sensitive inferences from individuals’ data is advancing. Both companies and individuals can benefit from sharing information and the application of sophisticated analytics. However, the potential negative effects are great (e.g. discrimination, manipulation). The erosion of privacy can threaten one’s autonomy as a citizen. Sharing more personal data does not always lead to more progress, efficiency or equality.
The degree to which people value and perceive the need for privacy depends on the context and context-dependence is amplified by uncertainty. Privacy preferences and behaviours are subject to influence because they are context dependent (1) and those with an interest in information divulgence are able to manipulate context to their advantage (2). People are often unaware of the consequences and their feelings of privacy.
Individuals manage the boundaries between their private and public spheres via separateness (1), reserve (2), anonymity (3), protecting personal information (4), deception (5) and dissimulation (6). These boundaries are established because of the need for intimacy and the desire for protection from social influence and control. People often experience uncertainty about whether and to what degree they should be concerned about privacy.
The uncertainty of the potential consequences of privacy behaviour is exuberated because the costs are intangible (1) and privacy involves trade-offs (2). This can be overcome by making both factors explicit.
People are also unsure about their own privacy preferences. There is a discrepancy between privacy behaviours and privacy attitudes called the privacy paradox (i.e. people claim to care a lot about privacy but do not act upon it). It appears as if people value privacy more when they have it than when they don’t. The consistency of preferences for privacy is also complicated by desire to be public, share and disclose.
The social penetration theory states that progressively increasing levels of self-disclosure are an essential feature of the natural and desirable evolution of interpersonal relationships from superficial to intimate.
Individuals often search the environment for cues to provide guidance when people are uncertain about their privacy preferences. The privacy preference of individuals depends on the context. The rules people follow for managing privacy vary by situation (1), are learned over time (2), are based on cultural criteria (3), are based on motivational criteria (4) and are based on situational criteria (5).
The theory of context integrity states that social expectations affect one’s beliefs regarding what is private and what is public. These expectations vary with specific contexts. Privacy concerns are influenced by others’ behaviours and are a function of past experiences (e.g. a new surveillance camera is likely to activate privacy concerns).
Some entities have an interest in and have developed expertise in exploiting behavioural and psychological processes to promote disclosure. The malleability of privacy preferences refers to the fact that various factors can be used to activate or suppress privacy concerns, which, in
.....read morePersonality refers to those characteristics of the person that account for one’s consistent pattern of behaviour. Online anonymity refers to the perception of the user that one can surf the net without disclosing information that might lead other surfers to identify oneself.
Anonymous computer-mediated-communication provides a higher level of control over disclosures as it hides social cues and can limit social presence. The receivers attribute qualities to the senders which are not conveyed due to less disclosure and increased anonymity. This increases the degree of intimacy experienced between participants.
Disinhibition refers to the fact that when people perceive that they are anonymous, they disclose more information. Feelings of social integration and belonging to an online group also increase disclosure.
The anonymity of parts of the internet may be instrumental for those looking to explore aspects of their identity and gain feedback and validation. The degree of exposure (e.g. is physical appearance known) depends on the function of the internet that is used (e.g social networking sites). However, even in social networking sites, there is a large degree of control because of impression management. Impression management includes choosing which pictures to display.
The lack of clarity about the physical appearance of people may be fruitful for people who face negative effects because of their appearance (e.g. unattractive). People tend to feel less anxious online in social interactions with a high degree of anxiety (e.g. romantic encounter).
Being member of a group that shares goals and interests is a major way of enhancing self-esteem. The internet is often used to connect to core group members. A core group member refers to a person with whom the surfer relates based on their main identity categorization (e.g. nationality). The internet makes it more simple to find a group of others who are similar, which can be important for people who belong to a stigmatized group. The internet allows these people to join these groups without publicly revealing their identity.
People are almost constantly online and people may acquire their self-esteem from their membership of different groups, both online and offline. CMC is used for maintaining social networks and creating new ones. This removes limitations of geography and transportation. Online leisure activities fulfil the same functions as traditional leisure activities.
The internet allows some people to explore who they are and experiment with different aspects of their identity. Furthermore, it creates a highly supportive net environment which might help people reach their deepest level of individuality (i.e. true self). A very salient group identity may enhance feelings of belonging to a certain group even when the participant is anonymous.
Personality affects how users choose and interpret different activities that are offered online. User preference is influenced by personality traits. These traits include sensation seeking (1), locus of control (2), extroversion (3), openness (4), neuroticism (5), need for closure (6), need for cognition (7) and attachment (8).
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The freedom of avatar-based communication to manipulate how one presents oneself can induce both liberating and destructive consequences for the individual actor and other social interactants.
Anonymity refers to the degree to which a communicator perceives an individual as unknown or unspecified. Anonymity is a continuous construct. It is a social construct and requires interpersonal context and awareness. The previous interactions with an actor also affect how anonymous someone is.
Misrepresentation refers to the creation of false and misleading impressions about one’s identity. This may occur to make one more desirable than one really is. Identity replacement refers to the act of substituting another identity for one’s own. This new identity can be of someone else or completely fictional.
Computer-mediated context makes it easy for a person to pretend to be someone else. Impostering refers to replacing physical world identities with virtual, avatar-based identities that do not look like them.
The self-perception theory states that people infer their own attitudes from observing themselves as if from third-person perspective. One’s perceived identity can change how an individual behaves. People start to behave in ways that are consistent with the characteristics of their manipulated identities.
The deindividuation theory states that when individuals lose their sense of individual identity, they are less likely to abide by social norms. Deindividuation produces a general disinhibition of previous inhibited behaviour.
The social identity model of deindividuation states that the self should be defined at various different levels including the categorical self as well as the personal self (e.g. a nurse disguise makes people less aggressive; not necessarily non-normative behaviour).
The context of communication (1), the degree to which the source is perceived as anonymous (2), the receiver’s desire to identify the source (3) and the receiver’s potential ability to determine the source’s identity influence a receiver’s attempts at identifying an anonymous other. These factors also predict the way in which the message and source are perceived.
The expectancy violation theory states that non-verbal behaviours that are expected are accepted at face by the perceivers whereas unexpected behaviours are scrutinized. This scrutiny can lead to more positively or negatively valanced assessment based on how the perceiver assesses the violator and the violation. Virtual avatars that are deemed more realistic are seen as more trustworthy and credible. This means that virtual avatars create expectations that can be violated. Expectancy violations may lead to differential analysis of subsequent behaviour.
The uncertainty reduction theory states that uncertainty is unpleasant and the increase of uncertainty decreases liking whereas the decrease of uncertainty increases liking. This means that anonymous actors might incite more uncertainty and thus have decreased levels of liking. However, uncertainty in pleasurable contexts may prolong positive responses to stimuli. This means that uncertainty may only amplify or prolong the perceiver’s natural response.
People with manipulated identities might feel less accountable for their actions. It is possible that anonymity
.....read moreSocial networking sites that allows users to craft self-representations that reveal core aspects of their self-concept (1) and highlights social connections with friends and family (2) satisfy human ego needs regarding desired self-images. These ego needs motivate social networking site use.
The self-affirmation theory states that people have a fundamental need to see themselves as valuable, worthy and good. This is an important motivator for behaviour. People tend to dismiss, distort or avoid information that threatens their self-worth. People value, cultivate and gravitate towards information that reinforces the positive self-image.
Self-affirmation refers to the process of bringing essential aspects of the self-concept to awareness (e.g. meaningful relationships). People are motivated to seek out such information in the environment and this need becomes particularly salient after an ego threat. After attending to self-affirming information, people’s tendency to engage in defensive processes is reduced or eliminated. Self-affirmation makes people more open-minded and secure toward threatening events.
Facebook profiles may constitute a venue for self-affirmation and users gravitate toward them in an unconscious effort to elevate their perceptions of self-worth and self-integrity. Social connectedness is the most potent source of self-affirmation.
In order for Facebook profiles to be self-affirming, they need to represent the domains of self on which self-worth is contingent (1), must offer a positive and desirable self-presentation (2) and the profiles must be accurate (3)
Facebook profile exposure is a self-affirming activity. Facebook profile exposure increases self-worth and self-integrity. By showcasing a version of self that is attractive, successful and embedded in a network of meaningful relationships, Facebook enhances users’ perceptions of self-worth.
Facebook users gravitate toward their online profiles after experiencing psychological distress in an apparently unconscious effort to restore perceptions of self-worth. Self-affirmation will be dictated by accessibility (1) and effectiveness-cost ratio (2). Facebook is easy accessible and cost-effective, making it an ideal venue for spontaneous self-affirmation.
Most contemporary research uses a sample size as small as reasonable to address the specific question of interest. However, the samples are often too small and not always representative of the population of interest. These issues, as well as questionable research practices, contribute to the replication crisis.
Cattell’s databox states that methods can be classified based on the structure of the data. Data can be organized along the dimensions persons (1), variables (2) and occasions (3). Big data will increase all of these dimensions.
The theory of data states that in search of insight, formal statistical methods leverage observations that are selected from a universe of potential observations and parsed into usable information for use in statistical methods.
Big data consists of three parts:
There are several challenges of big data:
Big data refers to data sets large enough to require supercomputers. It is less about data that is big than it is about a capacity to search, aggregate and cross-reference large data sets.
Big data rests on the interplay of:
Social systems are regulated by market (1), law (2), social norms (3) and architecture (4). Big data creates a radical shift in how is thought about research. It changes the definition of knowledge. Big data does not necessarily provide an answer to why questions (e.g. why do people vote for Bush).
Big data claims that it is objective and accurate. However, it is still subjective. The data still requires interpretation which is inherently subjective. Big data also often consists of errors as it mostly consists of data from the internet.
The same methodological issues of smaller data sets exist in big data. Articulated networks refer to networks that result from people specifying their contacts through technical mechanisms (e.g. e-mail; followers). Behavioural networks refer to networks based on communication patterns (e.g. people who text each other). However, these two networks are not equivalent to personal networks.
Context of data is hard to interpret at scale and difficult to maintain when data are reduced to fit in a model.
In order to act ethically, it is important that researchers reflect on the importance of accountability to the field of research and the research subjects. Big data researchers rarely acknowledge that there is a difference between being in public and being public.
Companies that possess the data (i.e. social media companies) often do not equally share their data with all, creating divides in the academia. There are three classes of people in big data:
There are six important statements regarding Big Data:
Hypertext refers to a collection of documents containing links that allow readers to move from one chunk of text to another. Hypertext may increase cognitive load relative to the processing of regular text.
Cognitive load consists of mental load, mental effort and performance. Working memory refers to the set of mental resources that people use to encode, activate, store and manipulate information while they perform cognitive tasks. Increased mental load is associated with reduced performance in hypertext reading. Executive functions include decision making, coordination of task demands and inhibition of irrelevant information.
Situation models refer to complex mental representations formed when readers integrate the statements in the text with their knowledge. The interruption of going from one hyperlink to another may have minimal effects on comprehension if the next text is related to and enhances the developing situation model.
It is possible that interruptions in reading impair situation model formation. Learning tends to be better when there are fewer links in a hypertext. Increasing the number of links may increase cognitive load and impair learning.
Networked hypertexts may impair a reader’s efficiency navigation. In general, the more links, the slower the navigation will be. It seems that people perform best when there are a lot of choices in the introductory screen and fewer choices at deeper levels of the hierarchy. A hierarchical structure of a test generally helps navigation.
Readers with low working memory spans benefit from structured texts and from organizers that highlight text structure. Hypertexts may be less appropriate for low working memory span readers. Individuals who are poor at keeping verbal representations active in memory may be disadvantaged because related sentences may be spread further apart in non-hierarchical hypertexts.
The flexibility of hypertext may be beneficial for readers who are positioned to structure their own learning activities (e.g. readers with prior knowledge, readers with an appropriate learning style). A flexible cognitive style (i.e. neither strongly analytic or wholistic) may be beneficial when reading texts with semantic links. The ability to monitor and organize one’s own learning becomes more important when hypertext structures are more demanding to process. Making the learning task harder by requiring readers to structure the text may have benefits for some learners whereas the increase in difficulty may overwhelm less able learners.
High knowledge readers do not necessarily benefit from hypertext as compared to low knowledge readers. Low-knowledge readers might benefit from hypertext that transparently conveys the structure of the text content.
Link previews might help provide context for the destination information, activating existing concepts in the reader’s knowledge structure and enabling integration. Labelling links can also enhance navigation performance. Mentally preparing to integrate information of a certain type can enhance comprehension and decrease cognitive load.
The prior knowledge of the reader influences the usefulness of structural overviews. High knowledge readers can rely more on prior knowledge and thus may be less affected by
.....read moreDifferent kinds of internet use may have different consequences for the way cognitive processes unfold. Experience (1) and agency (2) are two key dimensions of mind perception.
The internet is perceived as a hive mind, a vast compendium of continuously updated information. This device is used for finding and learning various kinds of information. Computers are also able to channel the presence of other people who we could interact with offline.
The transactive memory system refers to a model that expands the cognitive psychology metaphor of a single computer processor in a network of processors and has since expanded to accommodate the incorporation of actual computers into the system, which allows us to access the collective knowledge stored on the internet. The transactive memory becomes stress when the ‘where to find it’ changes.
People do not properly remember information when they have the opportunity to look it up. When people have highly memorable trivia and an unmemorable location of finding it, they remember one of the two but not both (i.e. knowing where to find it but not the answer). People appear to be prioritizing remembering where to find information rather than remembering the information itself.
Distributive practice refers to the repeated exposure to the same or meaningfully similar information over time. Repeated exposure to information improves the memory of that information. Repeated learning of information is retained longer when it is spaced apart in time compared to spending the same amount of time learning in one go.
People feel more confident about their future performance and their cognitive ability in general when they have access to the knowledge of the internet.
Solving problems creatively involves not utilizing the most accessible or dominant solution. When solutions lie outside of the range of one’s own expertise, creative problem solving declines. Divergent and holistic processing is needed to solve creative problems.
Increasing creative thinking can create a loop in which students become better at finding information online because they will approach the problem from multiple angles. When interacting with the internet as transactive memory partner, people tend to not remember as much information. Offloading memory for details to the internet aids insight problem solving.
New literacies refer to the competency to locate information, synthesize information and answer those questions and then communicate the answers to others. When learning new information, pronouncing it as false carries great informational value. Disbelief will not be interrupted by competing attentional demands when the new information is pronounced as false. When people need additional knowledge on topics they already know about, prior knowledge is recruited in the process of verification.
Finding the answer via successful search results in an illusory sense of control. A greater sense of control may incline people to be critical. Repeatedly making many choices may also lead to a decreased sense of control. Critical evaluation of knowledge online is promoted by a lack
.....read moreSerious games are designed to educate and entertain the user and promote behavioural change via the incorporation of prosocial messages embedded within gameplay. However, there is no consensus on the definition of serious games. It is possible that simulations could qualify as serious games, as some simulations consist of a challenge and have a clear learning goal.
Virtual worlds refer to three-dimensional environments in which social interaction figures more prominently than in the context of games or simulations. Young people may be highly susceptible to learning in digital environments (e.g. serious games) because they are ‘fluent’ and immersed in digital media.
The social cognitive theory (SCT) emphasizes observational learning. Self-efficacy is important for the theory. According to this theory, self-efficacy is enhanced through repeated gameplay and executions of behaviours needed to master a given game. This newly acquired self-efficacy is thought to transfer from the game to the real world.
The self-regulated learning theory states that individuals seek to manage their cognitions, behaviours and learning in pursuit of a given goal. Self-regulatory skills include goal setting (1), goal monitoring (2) and review of progress (3).
The self-determination theory (SDT) states that individuals have innate tendencies toward psychological growth. These tendencies can be facilitated or undermined by the social context via the satisfaction of the basic needs of autonomy (1), competence (2) and relatedness (3). Serious games designed according to the self-determination theory develop competence through task completion, allows for choice to develop autonomy and connect relevant goals to factors (e.g. personal values) that exist outside of the gaming environment.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) states that there are two routes through which attitudes are formed when encountering persuasive messages, the central and peripheral processing routes. The central route entails processing and analysing of the argument posed by the message in a relatively deep fashion, making the resulting attitude change stable and enduring. The ability to critically evaluate the argument and motivation influence the central route. The peripheral route entails the processing of relatively superficial aspects of the message (e.g. attractiveness, credibility). The resulting attitude change is temporary and unstable.
Serious games developed according to ELM use tailoring, the customization of messages to the characteristics or culture of the player to increase the personal relevance and importance of a given game message. Furthermore, the likelihood that this message will be processed centrally is enhanced.
There are several aspects of serious games:
Internet addiction refers to a person experiencing addiction-like patterns of using online applications. There are five subtypes of internet addiction:
The general internet addiction consists of subdimensions; interpersonal problems (1) and time management problems (2). The general internet addiction model states that psychopathological symptoms (e.g. depression, social anxiety) makes a person more susceptible to develop general internet addiction. Internet-related expectancies (i.e. the internet brings desirable consequences) and coping behaviours (i.e. coping in dysfunctional ways) are a result of the predispositions that make a person more susceptible to general internet addiction.
According to the model, internet addiction is the result of interacting undesirable personal characteristics and internet-related cognitions.
The accessibility of being online was different in the past. There were more external barriers (e.g. the required use of a desktop computer to go online). Mobile devices allowed for permanently online, permanently connected (POPC). The permanently availability and the perception of continues closeness of the object of addiction (i.e. mobile phone) is likely to overwhelm addicted users with problems with self-regulation and self-directedness. POPC makes the behavioural execution of internet addiction likely to become permanent.
POPC is also a risk factor for people who are not addicted to the internet but are at risk of becoming addicted to the internet. POPC is probably less relevant for subtypes of internet addiction that require long, continuous online sessions (e.g. video gaming and pornography). It is more likely to affect subtypes of the internet that allow for short online sessions (e.g. gambling, shopping). POPC can be seen as an amplifier and stabilizer to internet addiction dynamics.
The use of the mobile phone has become a default response for a lot of people to a large array of affordances and requirements. Smartphones and their multi-functionality facilitate the habitualization of using smartphones frequently and for many different purposes. They chronify cognitive structures related to coping with daily experiences and form internet-related expectancies. The habitualization of going online for any purpose may push the individual to addictive usage patterns.
Seeing people interacting with a mobile device has become very common which normalizes heavy online use. People who are at risk for internet addiction or people who have internet addiction are less likely to recognize their problem through social comparison because of the normalization of heavy online use. The perceived normality of heavy online use is likely to undermine individuals’ willingness and ability to find alternative coping strategies and reinforce their tendencies to find solutions to their psychological problems by going and staying online.
The social function of mobile devices urges people to stay online. This puts stress on the self-regulatory capacities of that person. The stress to not disappoint others by going offline may lead a person to develop addictive tendencies.
POPC leaves data traces and recordings of
.....read moreThe underlying game mechanics (e.g. code) affect the psychological aspects of a game. In Skinner’s operant conditioning, partial reinforcement through unpredictability of reward makes reinforcement most successful. The variable interval schedule (i.e. time) is also very effective. Behaviours based on partial reinforcement schedules are difficult to extinguish. Modern games often employ operant conditioning strategies to encourage people to show behaviour the game developer desires.
Superstitions often arise in games due to accidental associations. Game developers can also remove superstitions by adjusting game mechanics. Extrinsic reward in video games can make players who play on intrinsic motivation (e.g. liking the challenge) less likely to play. Game mechanics can also lead to unintended behavioural consequences.
There are several benefits of video games:
Action game players see a larger useful field of view and appear to have a deeper reserve of attentional resources that could be applied to a task. Action game players also show a shorter attentional blink. Strategy games may improve problem solving skills.
Flow refers to a mental state in which the person is completely absorbed in an activity and time flies by. In a state of flow, a person experiences a loss of self-consciousness and a distorted sense of time.
The Proteus effect states that a virtual avatar’s appearance affects its user’s behaviour (e.g. more attractive avatars lead people to behave in ways as if they are more attractive).
Serious games are used for learning (1), skill development (2), rehabilitation (3) and other applications (4). A serious game should have the same features that define computer and video games in general (i.e. interactivity, rules and constraints, clear goals, challenges and feedback). Educational games steer away from the traditional sequence of education (i.e. instruction, practice, assessment). Serious games are also used in corporations (e.g. military
.....read moreThe boundary theory explores the way people manage the boundaries for work life and home life. These boundaries tend to be very permeable at the moment, due to permanent internet access. The mobile phone enables constant connectedness to one’s work role (e.g. e-mail, texting). The smartphone blurs boundaries between work time and non-work time. This can have negative effects on family life.
There are different strategies one can take when it comes to mobile devices and work:
It appears as if people can become addicted to the internet. However, it matters less how much time people spend on the internet but mostly what they do with their time on the internet. The prevalence of internet addiction is debated although it seems to be higher in China and other East Asian countries, particularly in adolescent boys.
There are several aspects of the internet that are overused most often and they often mimic problem areas of offline behaviour (e.g. gambling):
Fear of missing out (FOMO) refers to an anxiety that an exciting or interesting event may currently be happening elsewhere, often aroused by posts seen on a social media website. FOMO is often related to frequent (excessive) social network use. Younger people, especially young males, are more anxiety prone and more susceptible to FOMO.
Low self-esteem (1), depression (2), hostility (3) and emotional instability (4) are important factors for the development of problematic internet behaviour. Problematic internet use also lead to changes in the brain. Treatment for problematic internet use ranges from draconic camps to cognitive behavioural therapy and ‘internet detoxication’.
One common symptom
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