The literature on career resilience (CR) to develop a nomological network describing major components of the construct in relation to other constructs is reviewed and synthesized in this article. Antecedents and consequences are examined together with the theoretical basis of CR. The implications for the created model for managers, organizations and individuals is discussed. 

The literature on career resilience (CR) to develop a nomological network describing major components of the construct in relation to other constructs is reviewed and synthesized in this article. Antecedents and consequences are examined together with the theoretical basis of CR. The implications for the created model for managers, organizations and individuals is discussed. 

What are the objectives of this study?

Technology, globalization, changing workplace demographics -and the economy change how individuals approach and evaluate their careers. Employees should be resilient, meaning that they should be able to "bounce back". Other requirements caused by the changing workplace are adaptive, nimble, employable and protean. CR is defined as the resistance of a person to career disruption when the environment is less than optimal. It is contrasting to career vulnerability which is the psychological fragility in situations with a less than optimal career environment. There are three sub-domains:

1. Self-efficacy

2. Risk taking

3. Dependency

Researchers found that CR grows when people gain more experience and age. Carson & Bedeian (1994) found that CR is a dimension of career commitment. However, in the early studies CR was a dimension of other career constructs. After that several publications followed on creation of a career resilient workforce. People should exhibit career self-resilience which is the ability to manage one's own work-life in a changing environment. Also, people should learn how to be self-employed. 

Most research was focused on career adaptability, protean careers and employability instead of CR. Therefore, the importance of CR and how Human Resource Development (HRD) can assist in creation of novel knowledge to increase CR is researched.  

What methods were used?

Several reviews on integrated literature have already been performed. For example: family resilience, personal resilience, psychological resilience and resilience in childhood. In the process of researching career resilience, several databases were searched. A staged review was conducted, and sixty articles were selected. After that seventeen more articles were rejected, and forty-three remaining articles were examined. 

In the next phase, a nomological network was presented in which relationships with CR were discussed. A nomological network is defined as a theoretical framework to sum up the different dimensions of an existing construct in relation to other interrelated constructs. The nomological network can provide important considerations for future research. The first step is to define CR. 

What is CR?

Currently, there are some major disambiguates in the definition of CR. Scholars have defined CR as the ability of people to recover from setbacks related to their career. However, this definition does not incorporate the environmental and contextual factors that contribute to the recovery. This is not a constant attribute. Others have defined CR as the process through human interactions, developed over time. The advantage of this view is that different mechanisms that contribute to CR are considered. 

The current literature study suggests that CR is a complex phenomenon. It comes from interaction between different characteristics combined with contextual factors. The authors define CR as the developmental process of adaptation, persistence and flourishing of an individual in his career despite changes, disruptions and challenges over time. Three important aspects are highlighted:

• CR is a process rather than a one-time event

• CR is a positive adaptation because it develops

• CR should recognize that challenges and disruptions can cause setbacks in both personal and professional life. 

How are personality traits related to CR?

A variety of factors contribute to the capacity to combat adversities of life. Personality is a great contributor, research was done using the big five personality traits. 

Consciousness is defined as the tendency for purposefulness, organized behaviour and ambition. It was the most frequently associated trait with CR. Proactiveness, like consciousness has a positive influence on CR. In a study to CR from Lastly, Bowles and Anrup (2016) they labelled the second most resilient group as adaptors. They exposed goal focused and systematic thinking behaviour, related to consciousness. The relationship between consciousness and CR is not completely clear. It might be that people with high consciousness engage in more proactive behaviour or they could have more effective coping strategies. 

1. Neuroticism is associated with the experience of anxiety, depression and other psychological distress. A negative relation was found between trait anxiety, comparable to neuroticism and CR. However, negative affectivity, which is also comparable was not related to CR. People with high neuroticism might exhibit disengagement coping focused on escaping feelings of distress. 

2. Openness is described as curiosity, imaginatively and flexibility. The relationship between openness and CR is positive. It was found that the innovators among teachers appear to be the most resilient. It is not clear how openness influences CR, it might be because they apply cognitive restructuring after a career setback. 

3. Extraversion can be explained as the dimension of sociability. A weak, but positive relationship was found between extraversion and CR. A highly positive connection was found between positive affectivity and CR. Thus, the experience of positive emotions could contribute to CR. 

4. Agreeableness means a caring, trusting and sympathetic tendency. A positive relation was found between agreeableness and CR. However, only one study found this result. The reason for the relationship might be that agreeable people have stronger social networks.

How are core self-evaluations related to CR?

Core self-evaluations are beliefs people hold about themselves and their functioning in social context. There are four traits that play a role: generalized self-efficacy, emotional stability, self-esteem and locus of control. 

• Locus of control is an individual’s perceived control over events in life. A positive correlation was found between internal locus of control and CR. Also, self-directedness and hardiness were positively associated with CR. 

• Self-efficacy is the perception of one's ability to perform across different situations. All studies found a positive correlation with CR. 

• Self-esteem is the value someone has about himself. Only one study examined the relation with CR, but they found a strong and positive relationship. It is possible that people with positive core self-evaluations handle coping more adaptively. 

How do skills influence CR?

Skills, developed over a period could also contribute to CR. For example, the skill to challenge counterproductive beliefs could be helpful during a career setback. There are skills that can be developed to enhance CR. These are technical -and time management, communication skills and support skills. Furthermore, Akkermans, Brenninkmeijer, Schaufeli and Blonk (2015) found six career competencies contributing to CR: self-profiling, work explanation, reflection on qualities, career control, networking and reflection on motivations. 

How do attitudes influence CR?

It was found that attitudes such as eagerness to learn, liking challenges, not taking things personally and optimism contribute to CR. 

• Career-related attitudes refer to career orientation. 

• Boundaryless means that someone has a career focus that is not limited by boundaries. This was negatively associated with CR. 

• Protean career focus is that someone is focused on the individual rather than the organization of being in control over one's career. This form of self-directed protean orientation was positively correlated with CR. 

How do behaviours influence CR?

Learning about organizational changes is positively related to CR. Other behaviours that positively influence CR are:

1. Health habits

2. Learning behaviours

3. Boundary-setting behaviour

4. Self-reflection

How does career history influence CR?

Some studies found an effect of career history on CR. It was a counter-intuitive relation in which training could increase CR, but at the same time decreases satisfaction. This could be because training can increase career expectations making them more disappointed when a setback is experienced. 

How do contextual factors influence CR? 

A supportive workplace can contribute to CR. For example, supervisor support and equitable treatment have a positive effect on CR. Furthermore, the absence of positive affective experiences is negatively correlated to CR. Organizational support also means development of employees' competencies and skills. Job characteristics can enhance the intrinsic motivation about work. Autonomy, feedback and skill variety have a positive influence on CR. Finally, having a supportive family is important for CR. 

What are the implications for further research and practice?

There should be consensus about the meaning of CR. It should be considered a process. The advantages are that it is less restrictive and can help provide better insights in how career resilience can be enhanced. It is important to emphasize individual career development rather than organizational benefit in HRD. 

Both training and development opportunities should be created to help increase CR. Additionally HRD should recognize that counselling is needed throughout one's career. Furthermore, contextual factors should be considered. These include providing someone with a leadership role, promotion of autonomy and skill variety and maintain supportive relationships throughout the workplace.