A group member engages in collective action any time that the group member is acting as a representative of the group and where the action is directed at improving the conditions of the group as a whole. Collective action usually occurs in disadvantaged groups but can include members of the advantaged group on behalf of the disadvantaged group.

Social movements refer to participation in mass protest, petitions, strikes or sit-ins. There is a difference in commitment (i.e. high or low) and duration (i.e. limited or unlimited) in social movements.

There are different approaches to social movements:

1. Breakdown approach (symbolic interactionism, structural functionalism, relative deprivation theory)
   This approach states that people focus on perceived injustice and emotions. People start to protest because of objective disadvantages. The discontent and frustration arising these disadvantages mobilizes people. One point of criticism towards this approach is that many aggrieved people never engage in collective action.
2. Instrumental approach (rational choice models of collective action)
   This approach states that social movements are normal, rational and institutionally rooted. The judgement of available resources (i.e. group efficacy) explains involvement. Collective action (or not) is the result of a cost-benefit analysis. It focuses on perceived injustice and group efficacy. Resources explain mobilization.
3. Social constructionist approach (SIT, IET)
   This approach states that collective action is socially constructed by participants, opponents and bystanders. It focuses on injustice (1), identity (2), efficacy (3) and emotion (4). The processes of interaction and sense-making among the aggrieved explain why people engage in collective action or not.

The basic assumption of the breakdown approach states that collective action results from objective disadvantages. Symbolic interactionism states that social movements are phenomena emerging in the interaction between dissatisfied people. Structural functionalism states that social movements are a process to restore equilibrium in society.

Relative deprivation theory states that social movements emerge from high levels of relative deprivation in society. According to this theory, people compare their situation with a certain standard (e.g. others, ideological standard) and if one concludes that one does not receive what one deserves, then there is relative deprivation. There is group deprivation and individual deprivation.

The success expectation of collective action depends on the strength of the state (1), level of repression (2), party system (3), degree of access to policy (4) and dividedness of elite (5).

The social identity theory (SIT) states that people’s motivation to engage in collective action depends on whether they perceive an unstable hierarchy and illegitimacy of the hierarchy. This, in combination with the perception of alternatives, leads to collective action.

The intergroup emotion theory (IET) emphasizes that the role of group-based emotions and the appraisal of the situation lead to collective action. It explains how individuals feel emotions on a group level.

The appraisal theory states that appraisal, emotion and action are means by which people cope with events in their social world. There are two types of coping with social reality:

1. Problem-focused coping
   This is aimed at changing reality and makes use of group efficacy. This style of coping makes collective action more likely if people perceive their disadvantage as unstable.
2. Emotion-focused coping
   This is aimed at regulating the emotions tied to the situation. This style of coping makes collective action more likely if there is a group-based appraisal of unfairness (1) and illegitimacy (2).

Emotional social support refers to the extent to which one believes that others share the view of the situation. Instrumental support refers to the perception of other group members’ willingness to engage in collective action. Procedural unfairness is at the heart of collective action.

Emotion-focused coping fits with the intergroup emotion theory and the social identity theory. Problem-focused coping fits with the emphasis on group efficacy and cost-benefit considerations. The expression of group-base anger among fellow group-members can be an indirect way to provoke social change by communicating the intensity of feeling and extent of social support for action.

Collective action requires emotional social support and instrumental social support and a group member can know this is others express their feelings and support for actions (e.g. through a political leader). Collective action requires perceived injustice (1), politicized collective identities (2) and group efficacy (3).

There are several dynamics of collective action:

1. Demand
   This refers to the characteristics of supporters (e.g. demographics, emotions, shared grievances). It includes the grievances which are the result of relative deprivation.
2. Supply
   This refers to the characteristics of the movement (e.g. strength, effectiveness, motivation). It includes the ideology of a movement which provides opportunities (e.g. marches) to celebrate a collective identity which increases instrumentality (i.e. perceived efficacy).
3. Mobilization
   This refers to the characteristics of marketing (e.g. communication, social networks). It includes that people need to sympathize with a cause and want to participate (1) and people need to be able to participate in events.

Double deprivation (i.e. individual and group deprivation) is the strongest predictor of collective action. Collective disadvantage makes social identity salient which can lead to a group-based appraisal of procedural unfairness in which emotional social support promotes collective action tendencies through group-based anger.

Instrumental social support may enhance perceptions of emotional social support.

Tokenism refers to having an almost closed advantaged group. An advantaged group that is partially open provides people with the idea that it is possible to climb the social ladder.

There are five possible responses to injustice:

• Acceptance (i.e. inaction)
• Individual normative action
• Individual non-normative action
• Collective normative action
• Collective non-normative action

Individual action refers to action directed at improving one’s condition. Normative actions refer to actions that conform to the norms of the existing social structure. Non-normative actions refer to actions that do not conform to the norms of the existing social structure.

The presence of alternatives to the disadvantaged situation leads to collective action to improve the situation of the disadvantaged group. People will almost always attempt individual action and prefer this over collective action. However, when individual action is futile or not possible, collective action will be used. It is not clear when group members perceive a situation as unstable or illegitimate.

People use individual normative action is the advantaged group is perceived as open although this might only be true for individuals who are near the entry requirement. A partially open group will lead to little endorsement for collective action and a preference for individual action. People tend to accept their position if the advantaged group is perceived as open but people are not near the entry requirement.

Collective non-normative action may only be used when the opportunity of personal advancement (i.e. individual action) is completely removed. The absence of a normative strategy does not necessarily lead to non-normative action. Normative action is perceived as ineffective when the actions of the highly advantaged group are not consistent with the norms.

There are three limitations to theory and research in intergroup relations            :

1. There is a tendency to focus on feelings and perceptions rather than behaviour.
2. There is a failure to study the full array of behavioural options.
3. There is a reductionist nature of dominant theories of intergroup relations.