Study Guide with article summaries for Cross-cultural Psychology of Health and Illness at Leiden University

Article summaries with Cross-cultural Psychology of Health and Illness at Leiden University

Table of content

  • The role of family obligations and school adjustment in explaining the immigrant paradox
  • Perspectives on care and communication involving incurably ill Turkish and Moroccan patients, relatives and professionals: a systematic literature review
  • Explicit prognostic disclosure to Asian women with breast cancer: A randomized scripted video-vignette study (J-SUPPORT1601)
  • The Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD): A new neuropsychological screening instrument for dementia in elderly immigrants
  • Over- and under-diagnosis of dementia in ethnic minorities: a nationwide register-based study
  • The use of outpatient mental health care services of migrants vis-á-vis Dutch natives: Equal access?
  • War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma- focused and psychosocial frameworks
  • Sex in Geneva, sex in Lilongwe, and sex in Balaka
  • Sexuality, Culture & Power in HIV/AIDS Research
  • The gene-culture interaction framework and implications for health
  • Achieving cultural appropriateness in health promotion programs targeted and tailored approaches
  • Effectiveness of cultural adaptions of interventions aimed at smoking cessation, diet, and,or physical activiy in ethnic minorities

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The role of family obligations and school adjustment in explaining the immigrant paradox van Van Geel & Vedder - 2011 - Article

The role of family obligations and school adjustment in explaining the immigrant paradox van Van Geel & Vedder - 2011 - Article

Many studies note the problem of the 'immigration paradox'. Immigrants have been associated with declining academic performance and aspiration. This line of research is cross-sectional and compares first, second and third generations. The Longitudinal Immigrant Student Adaptation Study (LISA) combines longitudinal, interdisciplinary, and comparative approaches to document adaptation patterns of 408 recently arrived immigrants from Central America, China, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico over the past five years. This article presents data showing patterns of academic performance. The Structural Comparison Model (SEM) provides insight into the factors that contribute to these patterns. The data suggests that supportive relationships are a significant mediator in the academic outcomes of young immigrants. Implications for future research are also discussed.

What is the cultural context of this article?

In recent years, the number of immigrant children in schools in the United States has risen sharply. These children experience challenges associated with migration to a new country, poverty, racism and discrimination, and violence at school and in society. The children growing up in poor neighbourhoods also have to deal with unemployment, violence, structural barriers and segregation due to race and poverty. Racism and ethnic discrimination have a negative impact on psychological functioning, self-confidence and physical health. Many immigrant children also go to schools that are less good and where, for example, there is too little staff and are too many students. Worrying about physical violence negatively affects the ability to learn and is bad for student-teacher relationships.

All of the factors above make an immigrant's adjustment more difficult, and they lower coping abilities. The children become more susceptible to academic failure. Although motivation to learn is better than that of the non-immigrant children, performance on tests, grade, attendance and drop-out rates are more negative. So despite the benefit of high motivation, optimism and more positive attitude towards school, immigrant children still perform worse than the non-immigrant children. However, some children are resistant, and do well.

There are four Protective Factors in the Life of an Immigrant Child:

  • Academic self-effectiveness is the belief someone has in his/her competence to control his/her own learning. This factor partly predicts the extent to which a child will learn the new language and enter into new relationships.

  • Proficiency in the English language is a predictor of academic success. It takes about 5-7 years to bring the language level of an immigrant to the same level as that of a non-immigrant child. High self-efficacy has a positive influence on the proficiency of the new language.

  • Factors related to the family environment are very important. Two or more adults in a child's life increase the likelihood of financial resources, supervision, guidance and discipline. Multiple caregivers can lower social anxiety and support academic commitment and outcomes, among other things. There is a direct relationship between the child's education level and performance of the child, such as on tests and grades. Educated parents provide benefits such as extended vocabulary and computer access.

  • Gender also influences school performances. On average, girls perform better than boys. Many factors can influence this. For examples, boys are more often the target of violence, physical aggression and racism. Immigrant girls also have more responsibilities at home, which can keep them off the streets. Boys have less meaningful relationships with teachers and perceive school environments as less supportive than girls.

Why is relational engagement important?

Relationships influence school performance, because the quality of relationships in the school setting is connected to successful academic adaptation. Social support at school is important for academic adaptation in both immigrant and non-immigrant children. Social relationships have protective factors, such as emotional support, cognitive guidance, and positive feedback. Relationships in school are, among other things, important for promoting socially competent behaviour within the classroom. Peer relationships support the development of psycho-social competences, such as providing support and relaxation in the face of anxiety. Peers can also help with homework and exchanging information. However, because most immigrant children attend poor schools where there is a lot of segregation, they have limited access to networks of peers who have a lot of knowledge.

Relationships with supportive adults in school, such as teachers and coaches, are important for the social and academic adaptation of adolescents, and especially for immigrants. Protective relationships with non-parent adults provide additional bonding, safe environments in which to learn cultural norms and customs, and information important to succeed in school.

What are academic and behavioural relationships?

An academic relationship refers to the extent to which a student is connected to what is discussed in class. This contributes to academic performance and includes cognitive, behavioural and emotional dimensions. The focus in this article lies on the behavioural part, namely participation around academic tasks, going to school, paying attention, behaving in class, doing homework and handing in assignments on time. There may be a gap between what is academically possible and what is achieved by the child.

What is the goal of this research?

The aim of this research was to investigate associations with the risk and protective factors mentioned above. A threatening school climate was expected to increase the risk of poor academic outcomes, because of the negative associations with relational and behavioural engagement and lagging language proficiency. High levels of self-efficacy and language development were expected to reduce this risk, because of the positive associations with behavioural and relational engagement. Relationships to school were expected to increase behavioural engagement to school and would be associated with academic achievement. The Structural Equation Model has been used to investigate mediation. Certain background characteristics were also expected to influence the outcomes, such as having at least two parental figures at home, being a girl and having better educated parents. These characteristics were associated with increased employment and better academic performance.

Which methods were used?

The study used data from the Longitudinal Immigrant School Adaptation Study (LISA).

  • Recruitment: Schools in Boston and San Francisco with high numbers of immigrant students have been selected to participate. With the help of school staff, young people were identified who met the criteria (newly arriving immigrant with both parents from the same country).

  • Interviews: Each year, interviews were conducted with the children in a language that the child preferred. The interviews lasted 1.5-2 hours and consisted of different types of questions, that were all asked verbally.

  • Participants: (N = 407, of which 53 percent were female) of newly arriving immigrant school students from Boston and San Francisco. The age was between 9-14 years old at the start of the study.

  • Educational level of the parents was on average 9.2 years with a range of 0-21 years.

  • Income distribution: 70% of the households that participated were within the range of 0-40,000 dollars per year.

  • Family structure: the family size was between 2-17 people. The Chinese lived in the smallest families and the Central American and Mexican children in the largest families. The majority of children had two parents .

  • Characteristics of the area of ​​origin: most children came from rural (urban) areas.

  • Reliability and validity: a protocol has been developed that is relevant for different cultural groups.

  • Case studies: In the third year of the study, 75 students were selected for case studies.

Which measurements were used?

  • Demographic data included parental education level, parental employment, and income.

  • Proficiency in the English language was measured with the Bilingual Verbal Abilities Test.

  • School violence was measured on a 10-point scale to measure the frequency of violence and bullying at school and in the neighbourhood.

  • Academic self-efficacy was measured on a 7-point scale.

  • Behavioural engagement was measured on a 4-point scale that focused on the behavioural portion of academic engagement.

  • Relational engagement was measured on an 11-point scale and included statements such as' I can count on at least one adult at school.'

  • Figures were the primary training dates.

What are the results?

In general, the academic performance of the immigrant children from the different countries is declining. The academic performance of children with Chinese parents remains roughly the same. The greatest decrease can be seen in the Dominican children. Most figures were stable for the first three years. Girls consistently outperformed boys over the five years, but the changes over time were the same, with both girls and boys decreasing performance. Behavioural engagement was lower in year five than in year three for every student, except for the Haitian children. The Structural Comparison Model was used for the difference between year three and year five, because language proficiency is an important indicator for academic achievement. The (average) behavioural engagement from years three and five is generally declining. Only children from Mexico show a slight increase. The largest decrease can be seen in children from the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Proficiency in the English language affects the average grade in both years three and five. Girls had a higher mark on average than boys.

The central element of the model used was the mediating role of relational and behavioural involvement between student background and academic achievement. Relational engagement was found to predict behavioural engagement in each year, and behavioural engagement predicted the mean mark in both year three and year five. Problems at school reported by the students were correlated with relational and academic engagement. School violence in year three predicted the mean grade in year five. Children with only one parent or children with low-educated parents had more problems at school. Girls and children with more educated parents had greater relationship involvement.

There was a negative relationship between self-efficacy at year three and the mean grade at year five. This was inconsistent with the general pattern and could be due to too much confidence at the start of the trajectory.

The average of the sample was 12 years. However, there were age differences between immigration groups. Children from Haiti and Mexico were younger, and this could potentially affect the results. However, an analysis in which the children were divided into two groups based on age showed the same relationships and patterns.

Two case studies

  • Henry was typical of the immigration paradox. He was 12 years old when he immigrated from China with his mother. He started out with high expectations of himself and with great academic potential and showed a dramatic decline in academic performance over time. The big difference took place during the transition to secondary school, contact with the teachers diminished and he no longer dared to ask questions. He also felt isolated and went to classes less, his grades started to drop.

  • Rosa had a large, supportive network of relationships with family members, peers and teachers. Her academic performance has remained stable over the years. She came to the US from Mexico as a 13-year-old girl. Rosa had two parents and six brothers and sisters. Rosa saw her two older sisters, who were studying, as an example and helped her younger brothers and sisters with homework herself.

What can be concluded from the results?

The current research was about the susceptibility of recently arrived immigrants from different countries to risk factors for low academic performance. In general, the immigrant children's performance declined between the third and fifth year of the study. The research highlighted the 'immigrant paradox', as most children started out with high motivation and ambition, but academic performance declined drastically over the years. There were, however, some differences between the countries. For example, Chinese children generally had the highest grades.

In general, relational engagement was an indicator of academic achievement. However, the predictive value of this factor differs, for example, between Mexican and Chinese children. It is important that more research is done on this.

Girls outperformed boys both at the outset and over time. Girls had better relationships with teachers, because of less conflict and closer relationships.

The Structural Comparison Model provided further insight into the general pattern. The prediction that a child's relational and academic involvement in school was mediated by background and academic involvement was confirmed. Relational and academic engagement mediated the negative effects of school violence on grades. It is important that children with more susceptibility to problems and low academic performance, such as immigrants, experience a warm and positive climate in schools. Unfortunately, this is usually not the case.

Academic self-efficacy was associated with higher grades in both years three and five. School-reported violence and threats in school were predicted to be negative for language proficiency, relational engagement and academic engagement at years three and five. Students with less educated and single-parent families reported more problems at school. What emerges is that many of the schools that the immigrant children attend have too few staff and too many students.

Consistent with previous research, it was found that English language skills were predictive of academic performance. The case studies show that various factors influence performance, such as having positive, social relationships, siblings, two parents and more educated parents. It must be taken into account that academic performance generally decreases somewhat as children become parents, but this decline is very strong among immigrant children.

What are the limitations of this research?

Randomization of the sample was not possible because children had to meet special inclusion criteria. This limits the ability to generalize the data. Still, the authors think the sample was representative of newly arrived immigrant youth. Subsequent research can also use immigrants from countries other than those used in this research. The use of culturally appropriate performance testing is also important. More research also needs to be done into resilience. This is because academic resilience does not necessarily mean that the child is resilient in all areas.

Current research has implications for future research and school policy. It is important to reduce racism and threats in school. Practices that enhance relationships are desirable.

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Perspectives on care and communication involving incurably ill Turkish and Moroccan patients, relatives and professionals: a systematic literature review - De Graaff, Mistiaen, Devillé, Francke - 2012 - Article

Perspectives on care and communication involving incurably ill Turkish and Moroccan patients, relatives and professionals: a systematic literature review - De Graaff, Mistiaen, Devillé, Francke - 2012 - Article

Background

Palliative care is the care that is provided to patients who are chronically or incurably ill. The goal is to relief the symptoms that patients experience, such as pain or distress. Initially, palliative care was provided to terminally ill cancer patients. Lately, however, there has been a shift which means that now a lot of other patients, such as patients suffering from heart failure or COPD, do get a palliative treatment.  There has also been a shift in that palliative care providers pay attention to patients with specific cultural and sociodemographic characteristics, such as non-Western immigrants.

Studies in non-Western countries have shown that the citizens of these countries have limited choices with regard to getting medication against pain. This is due to poverty. It is also true that family care systems, religious belief and practices and a traditional view on care, may influence the use of palliative care in these countries. Other issues that cultural minorities experience in Western countries could experience are language difficulties, health literacy difficulties or discrimination. The way in which palliative care is available in these Western countries might also be mismatched to the cultural and / or religious background of the non-Western immigrants.

A clear example of how these difficulties could work out is as follows: Some muslim patients with incurably life-limiting illnesses who live in Europe often do not like to seek help from professional caregivers or insitutions. They would rather use the care provided by their family and close relatives. This is due to negative experiences with the care services, which could be about the food (such as not taking in account the food that is permitted for them and providing these muslim patients with bacon or experiencing discrimination). These muslim patients are often also concerned about criticism from their community. Some muslim (or other religious) patients might also believe that illness and disease are God’s will and that it is not right to seek out professional care.

The authors of this article found, in earlier empirical research carried out by them, that care professionals in the Netherlands often experience difficulties in providing good care and communication to immigrant patients. One of the reasons for this is that they find it difficult to meet the needs of these patients and their families. Providing good care and communication to immigrant patients is further complicated by that some patients lack knowledge about their diseases, that there are some strong cultural patients within their (big) families and that there are sometimes inadequate interpreter facilities.

In the Netherlands, the Turkish and Moroccan people form the largest immigrant group. They come from different places in the world, but they share some important features, such as that that they often come from poor agricultural regions, that they arrived at low-paid ‘guest workers’ between 1950 and 1980, that they often live in deprived neighbourhoods and that most of them belong to a Muslim minority group. The first generations of these Turkish and Moroccan are ageing in this year and upcoming year, which means that they will increasingly need palliative care.

The authors of this article performed earlier literature research and found that the issues that were mentioned before that non-Western immigrants often experience also count for this specific group of immigrants in the Netherlands. For example, research has shown that the Turkish and Moroccan elderly experience barriers when using Dutch professional care, with one of the reasons for this being the strong role of family care in their culture. However, the researchers could not find any article about Turkish and Moroccan people in the palliative phase. This could be due to the fact that these immigrants were still healthy. But, since many of them are ageing, the authors decided to perform an international systematic literature review based on two questions:

What is known about the care experiences and care perceptions of incurably ill Turkish and Moroccan patients, their relatives and care professionaLs?

What is known about communication between these patients, relatives and care professionals regarding care and treatment in the palliative phase?

The perspectives on family care

From the studies that looked at family care, three different perspectives on family care could be distinguished. Family care could be seen as: a social duty, an economic neccesity and or a burden.

Family care as a duty

As seen before, family members are the key providers of care in the Turkish and Moroccan immigrant groups. This is true for both the country of origin as for the immigrant countries. In Turkey and Morocco, most patients are supported by the family. This is also seen in the Netherlands, where family care is seen as an obvious duty. This means that many of the patients expect their children and their children’s partners to take care of them. This often comes down to the daughters or daughters-in-law providing most of the care. This means that they prepare food for the patients and for the visitors, that they do paperwork and that they accompany the patient to the doctor as an interpreter.

Family care as an economic necessity

One of the reasons for the emphasis on family care is that of not being able to use other kinds of care because of poverty and a hospitals’ lack of resources (in Turkey). In Morocco, cancer patients pointed out that professional treatment was often unpayable and not covered by medical insurance.

Family care as a burden

Family care is also seen as a burden. Especially studies in the Netherlands showed that sons and daughters of Turkish patients sometimes even decide to move out as a way to escape from the duty. One of the reasons for this too high of a pressure that leads to exhaustion is that there are often many different opinions regarding the feasability of family care and that the financial costs are often not covered by health-care insurance which leads to a heavy financial burden on the family.

The perspectives on professional care

From the studies that looked at the contribution of professionals in the care for incurably ill Turkish and Moroccon patients, three topics were mentioned very often; a preference for hospital care, barriers to professional care and the quality of professional care.

A preference for hospital care

Most of the cancer patients in Turkey show a preference to stay in the hospital, because they feel safe. Turkish professionals who know that the ill patients can not be cured, want them out of the hospital. Also, most general practitioners in Turkey prefer that their patients are hospitalized, again with the reason being safety. Turkish doctors are also more likely to fulfil the patient’s family’s wishes than the wishes of the patient themselves. From studies in the Netherlands it became clear that most Turkish and Moroccon patients prefer to die at home. When they think they can still be cured or when they want to relieve their family from the burden of family care, they would prefer to be in a hospital. Another finding is that immigrants were more likely to die in a hospital than Dutch patients.

Barriers to use professional care

According to patients, relatives and professionals, the key reasons for that immigrants often have a limited use of professional care, residential care for the elderly or hospice care is that they are unfamiliar with the available care and because of language barriers. Other reasons are financial barriers and the family duty of providing care for the patients. For instance, the relatives’ care preferences and feelings of shame often exert a big influence on that there is a limited use of professional care.

The quality of professional care

The use of hospital care in Turkey was hampered by limited communication between patients and relatives and because of limited cooperation among professional. Also, more than 50 percent of the nurses that work in a oncology centre in Ankara had inadequate experience with pain management. In Morocco, the nurses and doctors also pointed out that there is a lack of resources and limited training in the treatment of cancer-related pain. In the Netherlands, the relatives that are seen as obligued to provide care for the sick patients are often very critical of the professionals’ activities. The professionals in the Netherlands think that palliative care is often of insufficient quality for immigrant patients, because of issues in communication.

The perspectives on end-of-life care (EOL) and decision making

When studying the perspectives regarding end-of-life care or decisions, five topics were mentioned often: hope and faith, views regarding euthanasia, withdrawing and withholding treatment, artificial nutrition and continuing to offer food and involvement in decision-making.

Hope for cure and faith in Allah

Most of the Turkish and Moroccon patients want a maximum treatment until the end of their lives. This is also called life-sustaining treatments. They only refused this life-sustaining treatment when the patient has poor family relationships, pain or depression. Muslim patients that were not practicing their religion, felt guilty. The Muslim patients that did practice their religion, saw their disease (cancer) as a divine test (a test given by Allah).

In the Netherlands, this specific group of immigrants also often want life-sustaining treatments. For instance, immigrant patients were more likely to be offered life-proloning treatments, artificial respiration and cardiovascular medication compared to Dutch patients. For some patients and families, this wish for life-proloning treatments can be explained by their religion (Islam). For example, relatives of the patient often want the patient to die with a clear mind, so that they can have a good start in the hereafter.

The perspectives on euthanasia

In the Netherlands, euthanasia is defined as the ending of life by a doctor at the request of a patient. Physician-assisted suicide is one way of doing this. Euthanasia is not about the cessation of treatment when treatment is pointless. This is explained of the fact that it is considered normal to cessate treatment when there is no hope for cure with the help of medication.

In Turkey, the definitions of euthanasia vary between the respondents. When comparing doctors nd nurses, it seems that they also have very different knowledge about the different forms of euthanasia (active euthanasia, passive euthanasia, physician-assisted suicide and involuntary euthanasia). They seem to be most familiar with passive euthanasia. Most nurses and doctors in Turkey defined euthanasia as: “allowing death, leaving patients to die”. The second most given definition was: “passive euthanasia, not active death determined by others”. The last often given definition of euthanasia was “painless, peaceful death”.

Most professionals in Turkey do not approve of euthanasia. Reasons for this disapproval are the fear of abuse, ethical principles, religious beliefs and personal values. There are no Moroccan studies found on the views on euthanasia. In the Netherlands, a study concluded that patients and families with a Dutch background were more likely to request euthanasia than immigrants and their relatives.

Withhdrawing or withholding life-prolonging treatment

The relatives of Turkish patients want them to life as long as possible. This is why older Turkish patients often choose for life-prolonging treatments. In Turkey, 38% of the Turkish doctors advise some patients not to start a life-prolonging treatment and 50% withdraw treatment. They see this as a part of their job.

This withdrawing of treatment is more difficult than not initiating a treatment and often leads to discussion.

Continuing to offer food and artificial nutrition

Studies concluded that Turkish patients want to be fed until they die. From the health staff, 75% with the statement that nutrition should be stopped if a patient wants euthanasia. In another study, 68% of the nurses agreed that artificial nutrition should always be continued. No Moroccan studies were found on this. In the Netherlands, Turkish and Moroccon families preferred that their terminally ill relatives would be fed until the very end. When comparing Turkish and Moroccan patients with Dutch patients, the immigrants were more likely to be provided with artificial nutrition and hydration than the Dutch patients.

Involvement in end-of-life decisions

In Turkey, most of the cancer patients want to be involved in decisions about treatment. However, the use of written directions for this is often low and therefore decisions are often made verbally. In practice it comes down to that the relatives that make end-of-life decisions for the patients. 54 percent of Turkish oncologists think that patients should decide about euthanasia, and 42 percent of the oncologists feel that families have to decide jointly. The views on the end-of-life decision makers was not studied in Morocco. In Dutch studies, it seems that the relatives of incurably ill Turkish and Moroccan patients did not want to make any end-of-life decision, because they feel as the end of life is decided by Allah.

The findings related to communication

When addressing the communication between Turkish and Moroccan patients and their relatives, four topics were mentioned very often: communicaton about diagnosis and prognosis, communication about pain, sorrow and mental problems, language barriers and communication patterns within the family.

Communication about diagnosis and prognosis

In Turkey, relatives may form barriers when informing patients about a bad diagnosis or prognosis. Many relatives (around 66 percent) did not want the patient to be informed, so that they would not experience a negative affect.

The likelihood that Turkish doctors inform patients is related to the socio-economic status and educational level of the patients. It also depends on the type of illness a patient has and on the preferences of relatives. Professionals hold different views on informing patients and relatives about a diagnosis and prognosis. These attitudes that professionals hold are influenced by their skill in bringing bad news and by the stage of disease that the patient is in. For example, trained and more experienced doctors are more likely to inform the patient. Also, 76 percent of the nurses would inform a breast-cancer patient who expresses the need for a diagnosis, but 96% would not do so when the patient is terminally ill.

A remarkable finding is that in Morocco, 33 percent of the cancer patients did not know that they were ill, while the relatives would know in 89 percent of the cases. In the Netherlands, Turkish and Moroccan patients are not informed sometimes. Also, elderly patients do not like to talk about life-threatening illnesses, whereas younger patients often prefer to be informed and do not always inform their relatives. The arguments for these findings is that telling the truth to patients would hasten a death and that this information might lead to gossiping in the community. Turkish and Moroccon relatives also often dislike the way in which Dutch professionals inform patients. They think it is way too direct. Also, in informing patients about diagnosis and prognosis, the influence of relatives is strong, because they often act as interpreters.

Communication about pain, sorrow and mental problems

It seems that the communication with patients who are at the end of their lives, is often problematic. For example, Turkish patients often do not want to talk about pain, because they do not want to be dependent on analgesics (pain medication) and they did not want to upset their relatives. It also seems that Turkish nurses often feel as if they are uncapable of expressing empathy for patients who are dying. Moroccan doctors and nurses often hae inadequate measures to detect or asses pain. In the Netherlands, according to patients and relatives, immigrant patients do not like to talk about psychological problems, depression or dementia.

Language barriers

In Morocco, 25 percent of the patients only speak Berber. This means that they do not speak Arabic, which is the main language in Morocco. This leads to difficulties in the communication between patients and professionals.

In the Netherlands, language barriers are often handled by using the help of relatives, bilingual interpreters or other professionals. Most of the elderly Turkish patients living in the Netherlands state that they want Turkish-speaking staff, which sometimes is provided. This could also be a problem, because it could lead to a lot of social control within the community. In Germany, another big immigrant country, it was seen that language barriers are often a problem for professionals, because they can not follow what is being said between the patients and their relatives.

Communication within the family and within the community

Some studies suggest that communication problems in palliative care are sometimes related to the social patterns within families. In one study performed in Turkey, it was concluded that patients thought that the dominance of families in patient support resulted in low-disclosure rates. Among Turkish and Moroccan health advisors in the Netherlands, it was seen that Turkish and Moroccan immigrant families almost never seem to talk about illness and the problems it causes, because they want to avoid gossiping in the community. Elderly immigrants feel as if their families face a dilemma. Because of the ideal that children take care of their (ill) parents, there is a lack of open discussion about care needs and a lack of looking for other sources of care. Explanations given for the limited communication within families were that immigrants have limited experience with the care of ill patients (because earlier generations were cared for in the country of origin), a lack of knowledge about the facilities in the host country and religious traditions.

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Explicit prognostic disclosure to Asian women with breast cancer: A randomized scripted video-vignette study (J-SUPPORT1601) - Mori et al. (2019) - Article

Explicit prognostic disclosure to Asian women with breast cancer: A randomized scripted video-vignette study (J-SUPPORT1601) - Mori et al. (2019) - Article

Background

Prognostic disclosure to cancer patients who are in an advanced stage of their disease is considered to be very important. Explicit prognostic disclosure helps to reduce uncertainty that those patients might experience and it helps them to make realistic decision. Clear prognostic disclosure also helps to get goal-concordant care. Uncertainty means that it is hard to determine what illness-related events mean and leads to ambiguity and unpredictability of the future (medical conditions). Uncertainty also leads to more anxiety, psychological distress and a negative attitude towards health care.

Studies with cancer patients in Western countries showed that they like to have a prognostic conversation with their oncologist. It also showed that advanced cancer patients who had been told the prognosis, had more realistic expectations and a better view on their disease. It was also found that a prognostic conversation did not lead to heightened anxiety or a worse relationship with the doctor. With providing explicit prognostic information, this leads to advanced care planning (ACP). Advanced care planning is a process in which the care that is provided to patients is tailored to their specific needs and also preferences. It is common among the geriatric medicine and has been shown to reduce stress for the patient as well as for the families of the patient.

In Asian countries, most of the patients are also told about the diagnosis of cancer. Advanced care planning is also promoted. But, because of a preference of non-disclosure of bad news and a family centered decision making style, disclosure of poor prognosis is uncommon. Most of the doctors in Asian countries prefer not to talk about end-of-life issues (EOL) or about poor prognosis with advanced cancer patients. Around half of the Japanese and Japanese-American people also did prefer not to talk about the prognosis. In Australia, non-disclosure of a poor prognosis is also common among the Chinese migrant cancer patients and their families. Because of the above mentioned effects of prognostic disclosure on uncertainty, it is important to know whether these effects are also true for cancer patients with an Asian origin.

Methods

With the help of a randomized video-vignette study, Japanese women with breast cancer who had undergone surgery viewed videos of prognostic communication between an incurably ill patient and her oncologist. The difference in the shown videos was that in some of the videos there was explicit prognostic disclosure and in others there was not. The outcomes that were measured were uncertainty, anxiety, satisfaction and willingness to discuss advanced care planning (ACP).

Discussion

The results of these study indicate that explicit prognostic disclosure has positive effects on cancer patients of Asian origin. Explicit prognostic disclosure seemed to reduce uncertainty and increased satisfaction without leading to heightened anxiety in Japanese women with breast cancer. This is in line with the findings in the Western countries.

In Asian culture, tradition is that there is non-disclosure of bad news such as a poor prognosis. Also, in Asian countries, the families are often involved in the communiciation between patient and physician. In Japan, for instance, the citizens prefer not to know about what their condition will be like in the future and rather leave decisions to medical experts. Japanese-Americans however prefer to know what will happen to them. But keep in mind that stating that this is true for all people in an Asian culture is an example of a generalization. It is still preferred that clinicians explore the individual needs of their patients without deciding not to tell something because the patient is from an Asian origin. The suggestion in this study is that, when Japanese patients ask for their prognosis, the doctors should tell hem about it. The doctors also do not have to worry that giving an explicit prognosis will lead to increased anxiety.

There are also some other factors that contribute to what the effect of explicit prognostic disclosure is on patients. For instance, there were order effects. This means that earlier videos in a video-vignette study led to more negative outcomes. Prior literature also showed that marked physical symptoms are also associated with lower uncertainty. Emotion-oriented coping also influences the effect of explicit prognostic disclosure on Asian patients. It leads to negative outcomes after prognostic disclosure. Emotion-oriented coping is seen as a maladaptive coping style and can even lead to more perioperative emotional reactions. These findings suggest that, when clinicians communicate with patients who express emotional responses to stressful situations, they should provide these patients with extra support.

Other results of this study are that explicit prognostic disclosure does seem to improve self-efficacy, but this effect is not significant. Explicit disclosure did not lead to more willingness to discuss advanced care planning. This could be explained by cultural differences. For instance, the Western culture values such things as individualism, independence and autonomy as an individual. In Asian cultures, the general values are more things such as collectivism, interdependency, and autonomy as a family. This leads to the fact that decision making processes are more family centered. This also leads to that patients with an Asian origin might find it hard to develop self-efficacy and are less willing to discuss advanced care planning without discussing this with their family members.

The conclusion of the study is that explicit prognostic disclosure leads to better outcomes than non-disclosure in Japanese women with breast cancer. Therefore, when clincians are asked for a prognosis by patients with an Asian origin, they should feel free to tell them about it. They should not be afraid to give in to these wishes of the patients.

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Article summary of The Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD): A new neuropsychological screening instrument for dementia in elderly immigrants by Goudsmit et al. - Chapter

Article summary of The Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD): A new neuropsychological screening instrument for dementia in elderly immigrants by Goudsmit et al. - Chapter

Why is the diagnosis of dementia in elderly immigrants so important and so challenging?

In the coming decades, the immigrant population will grow older. The cognitive impairment and dementia in this group will increase accordingly. The diagnosis is difficult for several reasons. Most of the elderly immigrants from ethnic minorities have limited knowledge of the host country’s language and many are low educated or illiterate. This makes cognitive testing impossible. Other cultural factors may also influence how these minorities perceive cognitive symptoms that accompany dementia, or their likelihood of visiting a memory clinic, or the communication between them and their doctors.

What is the Cross-Cultural Dementia screening?

The Cross-Cultural Dementia screening is a new neuropsychological dementia screening test. There are three tests that measure memory, mental speed and executive function.

  • Memory is assessed by the Objects test which is a memory test that uses colored pictures of everyday objects. The individual has to recognize thirty target items amongst an increasing number of distracters. The test has two parts. Part A is a learning trial with immediate recognition. Part B consists of a delayed recognition trial.

  • Mental speed and inhibition are assessed by the Sun-Moon test. It contains a series of suns and moons that the participant has to name as fast as possible in the mother tongue. This test has also a second part, in which the individual has to say “sun” when a moon is shown and “moon” when a sun is shown.

  • Mental speed and divided attention are assessed by the Dots test. In part A of the test, the dominoes that have one to nine dots have to be connected in the right order as fast as possible by drawing a line in pencil. In part B of the test, the participant needs to connect black and white dominoes to one another, in both an alternating and an ascending order from one to nine, as fast as possible.

The test does not require general factual knowledge or reading and writing skills. There are several examples to make sure the individual understands the test. The researcher does not have to speak the same language as the participant to use this test.

Is the Cross-Cultural Dementia screening a culturally fair and valid test?

The results show that the Cross-Cultural Dementia test is a culture-fair test. The three subtests all showed good sensitivity and specificity for dementia. The test proved to be suitable for elderly immigrants from different ethnic backgrounds.

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Over- and under-diagnosis of dementia in ethnic minorities: a nationwide register-based study - Nielsen, Vogel, Phung, Gade & Waldemar - 2011 - Article

Over- and under-diagnosis of dementia in ethnic minorities: a nationwide register-based study - Nielsen, Vogel, Phung, Gade & Waldemar - 2011 - Article

Is dementia well diagnosed in ethnic minorities?

Some researchers suggest that dementia may be over- and under-diagnosed in ethnic minorities. Some studies found a higher prevalence of dementia in some ethnic minorities, whereas other studies have found that dementia services are not being used optimally by ethnic minorities. Because this has not yet been investigated in European countries, in the current research they will be using data from Danish hospital registers, as it offers a unique opportunity. Denmark has free access to medical care and the pattern of immigration and the history of ethnic minorities are heterogeneous in Western countries.

What has been found out about the prevalence rates of dementia and dementia subtypes in an ethnic minority population?

The mean age of dementia diagnosis was 57.7 years. This was considerably lower compared to patients from the general population, where the mean age was 78.5. The prevalence of dementia rose with increasing age. In the age group of 60 years or older, the prevalence was much lower in both males and females in the ethnic minority population. This indicates that dementia is over-diagnosed in younger ethnic minority populations and highly under-diagnosed in elderly ethnic minority populations. The high prevalence rate in younger age groups could reflect a higher proportion of misdiagnoses in ethnic minority patients. Also because dementia is typically not seen in very young individuals, the validity of such diagnoses seems doubtful.

What could cause over-diagnoses of dementia in younger people?

kelSeveral studies have reported an excess of hypertension, diabetes and cerebrovascular disease in some ethnic minority populations. Some patients may have reacted to these diseases with subjective cognitive complaints. Also, there seems to be an increased incidence of stroke in young adults from ethnic minorities, which could inflate the prevalence of dementia diagnoses.

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The use of outpatient mental health care services of migrants vis-á-vis Dutch natives: Equal access? - Koopmans - 2012 - Article

The use of outpatient mental health care services of migrants vis-á-vis Dutch natives: Equal access? - Koopmans - 2012 - Article

Summary with the article: The use of outpatient mental health care services of migrants vis-á-vis Dutch natives: Equal access? - Koopmans, Uiters, Deville, Foets - 2012

Although migrants have a higher risk and frequency of mental health problems, not much is known about the use of mental health care among European migrants. Ethnic minorities in North America are less likely to seek mental help than other groups, regardless of their health.

This research uses the definitions from Andersen's behavioural model to investigate the differences in health care usage between migrants and natives. This behavioural model is used in health care to demonstrate which factors lead to the use of health care services. These factors include risk factors, protection factors, and needs. The model is used for both perceived needs (how you see your own health and symptoms) and evaluated needs (a professional's medical judgment). Realized access to health care is its actual use, and fair access is when the need accounts for the majority of health care use.

The following factors (some have been extensively researched, others less so) can influence the use of formal health care:

  • age

  • gender

  • marital status

  • perceptions of mental disorders

  • expectations about the role of formal health care

  • ideas on ​​causes (some cultures see a disease as something supernatural and seek help from an informal resource)

  • place of birth

  • The amount of time spent in the new country,

  • age when migrating

  • SES

  • proficiency of the country's language.

This study focuses on the largest non-Western migrant groups in the Netherlands: Moroccans, Turks, Surinamese and Antilleans. Nowadays these groups make a lot of use of outpatient care (care at your home) compared to natives (Dutch people with only a Dutch background). However, whether the needs also differ between these groups has not been investigated. One study found that usage doesn't differ significantly, when focussed on subjective psychological stress.

This article examines whether the degree of access of outpatient mental health care for Turkish, Moroccan, Surinamese and Antillean migrants is the same as for natives .

Which methods were used?

The data used for this research comes from an existing national survey of 104 GP practices, which together had 385,000 patients. All groups had approximately the same interviews. The interviews took place at the homes of the participants, and were conducted in the native language of the participants if necessary (which was often the case).

During this interview the following factors were measured:

  • the use of mental health care: by asking whether there had been any contact with health authorities in the past year

  • the need for health care: emotional problems, vitality and mental health were measured with questionnaires

  • anxiety and depression: with two short questions

  • perceived health: the participants had to rate their health from 'very poor ' to ' excellent'

  • the common risk factors such as age, gender and marital status.

  • belief in the healing effect of nature and of prayer and orientation towards modern Western values​.

  • protection factors, such as SES: through education level

  • command of the Dutch language: speaking & understanding

Six models were tested. These can be found below in the results.

What are the results?

There are some differences in demographic measurements between the groups. For example, the education level was higher among the natives. Health care use was lowest among the natives and highest among the Turkish migrants. All migrant groups had worse health than the natives - of which the Turkish migrants the worst - and reported more anxious and depressed feelings. The perceived health was best among the natives. The Moroccan group was least likely to see lifestyle and stress as the cause of illness. The Turkish and Moroccan groups had higher scores than the Antillean and Surinamese groups for believing in the role of nature and praying for disease. Western orientation was higher in the Antillean and Surinamese group than the Turkish and Moroccan group.

After a correlation analysis, it appears that variables related to need are highly correlated with health care use.

Models used

Model 1 focussed on the raw scores, and showed that the Turkish group had a higher chance of using health care than the natives .

Model 2 focussed on health care needs. This model showed that poorer health was associated with a greater likelihood of health care use, unless perceived health was different. All differences between all groups (including the natives) disappeared, except for the Moroccan group. They still used less health care after this check.

Model 3 added risk factors. In this model, older age was associated with less frequent health care use. All migrant groups were less likely to use health care than the natives. From the smallest to the greatest chance of using health care: the Moroccan group - the Turkish group - the Surinamese group - the Antillean group - the natives .

Model 4 also looked at the educational level of the participants. Higher educational attainment was found to be associated with higher health care utilization. There were still differences between natives and migrant groups, but they were smaller. Only the difference between the Antillean group and the natives was fully explained by education level (for the other groups only partially explained).

Model 5 showed that Dutch language proficiency contributed nothing to the use of health care.

Model 6 proved that Western orientation was an indicator of health care usage, but this did not explain the differences in health care use between the groups, except for the Turkish group. The other two health belief variables (influence of nature and prayer on illness) were no indicator of health care usage.

Discussion

At first, the use of health care seemed to be the same for all groups. However, if you focus on care needs and risk factors, health care utilization is lower among migrants than among natives. Education level explained the differences between the Antillean group and the natives, and for the other groups it explained part. Surprisingly, Dutch language proficiency was not associated with health care use. Other studies sometimes have different findings with regard to language proficiency. If you focus on Western orientation, the use of health care became even smaller for the Surinamese group. Older age was also associated with less use of health care. Monitoring this leads to differences between migrants and natives. The role of SES (the measurement was education level) was average.

Andersen's definition of fair access is: when the need accounts for the majority of health care use. This study therefore suggests unequal access to health care, because some differences in health care use are explained by differences other than just the need for care.

Limitations

This study relied on self-report. All findings are based on perceived situations, but those are not always the real situations. There may be a bias in the data. The measurement of Dutch language proficiency is quite rigorous: you had to speak and understand it fluently to be able to answer “yes”, otherwise the answer would be “no”. Also, the only measuring point for SES was the level of education, because it was too difficult to adjust an income to the size of the family living from it. The measurement of belief in the effect of nature or prayer on illness must also be more specific.

Future literature should also look to belief in spiritual healing or other alternative informal health care services. The measurement of health complaints may also be influenced by cultural differences, what is appropriate when reporting these types of complaints.

Conclusion

This study was the first to paint a national picture of health care use among migrant groups and natives in the Netherlands. If perceived need is included in the analysis, the study suggests that access to healthcare is unequal for the migrants.

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War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma- focused and psychosocial frameworks - Miller & Rasmussen - 2010 - Article

War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma- focused and psychosocial frameworks - Miller & Rasmussen - 2010 - Article

What is the difference between trauma-focused and psychosocial approaches?

Over the past 25 years, interest in the psychological effects of organized violence has grown. This also leads to some discussions, such as whether there should be a trauma-focused or a psychosocial approach to understand and address the mental health needs of communities who are affected by armed conflicts. These approaches have different assumptions regarding the factors that most influence mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings. For the advocates of a trauma-focused approach, the critical factor is direct exposure to the violence and the destruction of war. For psychosocial advocates, the attention is focused mainly on the stressful social and material conditions that are caused or worsened by armed conflict. Think of poverty, malnutrition, destruction of social networks, etcetera.

According to trauma-focused advocates, war-related trauma should be treated using a specialized clinical treatment. They also believe that by ameliorating symptoms of war-related trauma, this will improve mental health and also enable people to cope more effectively with ongoing environmental stressors. The advocates for a psychosocial approach see the distress of the clients rooted in the conditions of everyday life. Altering these stressful conditions would, according to them, lead to improvements in mental health, and it would also foster the inherent capacity to recover from the effects of exposure to war-related violence and loss.

What is this article about?

According to the authors of this article state that armed conflict does have an effect on those who experience it directly. However, they also argue that organized violence generates high stressful conditions and daily stressors, such as poverty. Some studies have looked at the role of daily stressors in helping to explain the high rates of psychological distress which is often found among survivors of armed conflict. These studies have shown that adding daily stressors to the model induced by the trauma-focused advocates, does increase the predictive power of the model. Therefore, the model as proposed by the trauma-focused advocates is an overly simplistic model, which leads these advocates to overestimate the strength of the direct effects of direct war exposure in explaining psychological distress within communities. This, in turn, lead to an emphasis on trauma-focused interventions that are aimed at alleviating war-related PTSD, when there should be more attention to daily stressors.

The authors state that a narrow psychosocial focus is also not correct. This would lead to underestimation of the impact that exposure to armed conflict can have on mental health and psychosocial functioning.

Therefore, the authors are advocates of a new, more complex model. This model includes both war exposure and daily stressors as predictors of mental health status. In this model, armed conflict results in exposure to violence and loss, which in turn directly affects mental health and psychosocial functioning. Exposure to armed conflict also gives rise to daily stressors, which in turn affect psychological wellbeing. The model also includes daily stressors that are not related to armed conflict. The authors examine the pathways through which organized violence appears to exert its effects on psychological wellbeing.  

How do war exposure and daily stressors contribute to mental health?

The research that looks at in which ways war exposure and daily stressors contribute to mental health can be divided into three sets:

The consistently large amount of unexplained variance in mental health outcomes when war exposure is used as the only predictor of psychological distress.

Research with refugees in developed countries shows that post-migration or exile-related stressors such as social isolation, unemployment, and discrimination consistently predict levels of psychiatric symptoms as well as, or better than, pre-migration exposure to organized violence.

Studies of non-war affected populations in which so-called ‘daily hassles’ are often more highly associated with mental health symptom severity than major life events.

What are the origins of the direct effects model?

Studies onto the mental health effects of organized violence began in the 1980s. It followed two distinct tracks. Researchers in South Africa and Latin America adopted a broad view of the pathways by which organized violence influences mental health. Researchers in North America, Europe, and Australia viewed the mental health needs of refugees through the lens of Western psychiatry. They often classified the mental health status of refugees, based on PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). War exposure was linked to PTSD symptoms, and greater exposure was predictive of greater PTSD symptoms. So, this combination of PTSD-focused research and clinical work with refugees was critical in launching a worldwide interest in the mental health of war-affected population.

So, even though war exposure does predict PTSD symptom levels, this prediction is not perfect. It accounts for less than 25% of the variance in PTSD symptoms. Therefore, this lead researchers to think about what other factors might contribute to levels of distress.

As researchers began to add post-migration or exile-related stressors to their models, they found that these stressors accounted for equal or greater variance. This lead to two questions:

  1. To what extent do daily stressors help account for high levels of unexplained variance in levels of distress? That is, to what extent does the addition of daily stressors strengthen the explanatory power of the direct effects model?
  2. To what extent do daily stressors function to mediate or explain the relationship between war exposure and distress?

What makes daily stressors so stressful?

The authors suggest four reasons. First, daily stressors represent close or immediate stressors. War exposure is often more of a distal experience. Things such as poverty, social isolation, and overcrowding affect people day by day. Second, daily stressors are stressful because they are noxious stimuli that are not under the control of people. Such lack of control contributes to the perception of those events as stressful. Third, daily stressors are pervasive within conflict-affected populations, whereas direct war exposure is highly variable. Finally, the term itself includes a wide range of stressful phenomena. Some of these may be traumatic.

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Sex in Geneva, sex in Lilongwe, and sex in Balaka - Tawfik, Linda & Watkins - 2007 - Article

Sex in Geneva, sex in Lilongwe, and sex in Balaka - Tawfik, Linda & Watkins - 2007 - Article

Introduction

The current study compares three interpretations of women and the transmission of HIV in Malawi. The focus lies on what the interpretations say are the women’s motivations for extramarital sex. The three interpretations and case studies shall be named A (The Geneva Model), B (The Lilongwe Model) and C (The Balaka Rhetoric).

Interpretation A: The Geneva Model

This interpretation contains the view of the array of global institutions that are mobilized against the epidemic. It includes representatives of global agencies, western governments with a global reach and international non-governmental organizations. The Geneva Model considers AIDS to be epidemiological, spread from reservoirs of infectio by vectors of transmission. Initially, there were Pattern A countries, where AIDS was transmitted by men having sex with men. The reservoirs of infection were the men who frequented bath-houses. However, Pattern A countries could not include all countries. This led to Pattern B countries. The women of primary interest in this interpretation are commercial sex workers who are viewed as reservoirs of HIV infection. These women are considered poor, powerless and passionless. The Geneva Model states that the motivation for the women to sell their bodies is due to difficulties in meeting their basic needs, being powerless to resist men’s advances. Also no mention is made about the women’s own sexual desires.

Interpretation B: The Lilongwe Model

This is the interpretation by the governmental and non-governmental organizations that are involved in the HIV/AIDS prevention in the capital cities of sub-Saharan Africa. From this perspective, women only engage in transactional sex for survival. The vulnerability of the women is emphasized. It is said that women may seek outside partners due to the harsh realities of economic needs. Women and girls are said to succumb to unreasonable sexual demands of men. Also a combination of poverty and outdated cultural practices is said to have forced girls to drop out of school and get married to older men.

Interpretation C: The Balaka Rhetoric

This interpretation is articulated by married women and men from rural Malawi. The contrast between this interpretation and the first two is more striking. Women are seen as poor, but not as powerless or passionless. Women’s extramarital sexual partnerships often have a monetary aspect, but it is motivated not only by poverty. It is also motivated by aspirations for attractive customer goods and by sexual desire. Also, with regards to these sexual relationships, women have considerable power and autonomy and women can get their way.

Why are these interpretations so different from each other?

A speculative explanation for these different interpretations is based on the idea that what a person sees depends on where she, or he, stands. Since most research projects are conducted by men in capital cities, they have quite different standpoints then those of the rural women they are investigating. The lack of public acknowledgement of and discourse about women’s desires and power in the agencies of the first two interpretations, subtly reinforces women’s vulnerabilities.

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Sexuality, Culture & Power in HIV/AIDS Research - Parker & Richard - 2001 - Article

Sexuality, Culture & Power in HIV/AIDS Research - Parker & Richard - 2001 - Article

How did the scientific world respond to the HIV/AIDS epidemic?

One of the immediate consequences was a remarkable increase in concern with and funding for research on sexuality. New emphasis was placed on the urgent need for more adequate and current data on the nature of sexual behavior. From the mid- to late 80s until the present time, much of the social science research activity that emerged in response to AIDS focuses on surveys of risk-related sexual behavior and on the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about sexuality that may be associated with the risk of HIV infection. They tried to collect information about the numbers of sexual partners, the frequency of different sexual practices, previous experience with other sexually transmitted diseases, and all kinds of issues that they believed may be associated with the spread of the HIV infection. The primary goal was to guide prevention and intervention policies designed to reduce behaviors associated with increased risk for HIV infection.

Why was the relative effectiveness of the research instruments and the intervention strategies questioned?

There were difficulties with translating and adapting research protocols for cross-cultural application. There were radically different understandings of sexual expression and practices in different societies and cultures. By the end of the 80s scientists realized that they needed more information on the complex set of social, structural and cultural factors that mediate the structure of risk in every population group. The dynamics of individual psychology was not able to fully explain and influence changes in sexual conduct without considering these broader issues.

How did the approach to HIV/AIDS research change in the 90s ?

Biomedical and epidemiological approaches and the psychological approach to sexuality were dominating the agenda of behavioral research. Until in the early 90s, anthropology started finding alternative approaches to research sexuality and AIDS. At least two major tendencies can be identified.

  • A growing consensus on the interpretation of cultural meaning as central to a better understanding of both the sexual transmission of HIV in different social settings and the possibilities that may exist for responding to it through the design of more culturally appropriate prevention programs.

  • Increasing concern with the impact of a range of wider structural factors that could be seen as creating vulnerability to HIV infection as well as conditioning the possibilities for sexual risk reduction in specific social contexts.

What does the cultural meaning with regards to the HIV/AIDS research entail?

By the end of the nineties, some broader cultural factors began to be identified as important to really understanding the social dimensions of HIV/AIDS. There was starting to be more attention for the broader set of social representations and cultural meanings that could be shaping or constructing sexual experience in different contexts. This new attention to sexual meaning did not consider isolated individuals, but social persons who are integrated in the context of specific cultural settings. They wanted to find out what the sexual practices mean to the people involved, the significant contexts in which they take place, the social scripting of sexual encounters and the diverse sexual cultures and subcultures that are present or emerging. Especially, emphasis has been given to the cross-cultural diversity that exists in the construction of same-sex interactions.

What is meant with the term “structural violence”?

Since the nineties, research has also started looking at the political and economic factors that played a role in the epidemic, and how they may also have prevented AIDS prevention programs in being effective. This research looks at forms of structural violence, which determine the social vulnerability of both groups and individuals. It looks at the interactive effects of social factors like poverty and economic exploitation, sexual oppression, gender power, racism, and social exclusion.

How does structural violence influence the HIV epidemic?

Structural violence finds itself in political and economic systems and relates itself to economic development, housing, migration and immigration, labor, health, education, and welfare. It creates a structure of possibilities of sexual interactions between people. Think of the ways in which they define the availability of potential sexual partners and practices. These possibilities are defined through the implicit and explicit rules and regulations that are imposed by the sexual cultures of specific communities as well as the economic and political power relations that underpin these sexual cultures. Social and cultural rules place certain limitations on the potential for negotiation in sexual interactions (and thus create possibilities for sexual violence to occur, for the use of contraceptives, sexual negotiation).

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The gene-culture interaction framework and implications for health - Sasaki, LeClair, West, Kim - 2016 - Artikel

The gene-culture interaction framework and implications for health - Sasaki, LeClair, West, Kim - 2016 - Artikel

Abstract

Om een meer volledig beeld van gedachten en gedragingen die relevant zijn voor gezondheid te krijgen is het belangrijk om zowel genetische als culturele factoren te bekijken. Genen hebben interactie met de cultuur, wat ervoor zorgt dat dezelfde genetische predispositie kan leiden tot verschillende uitkomsten, waarbij cultuur de afhankelijke variabele is. Culturele verschillen die van invloed zijn op de uitkomst kunnen weer afhangen van de genetische predisposities. In dit artikel wordt een overzicht gegeven van het onderzoek dat gedaan is naar de interactie tussen genen en omgeving. Ook worden een paar van de biologische mechanismen besproken die onderliggend zijn aan deze interactie. Het gen cultuur kader wordt besproken en hoe cultuur een belangrijke omgevingsfactor is om in acht te nemen. Dit omdat cultuur een unieke omgevingsfactor is. Ook wordt besproken hoe de gen cultuur (GxC) interactie toegepast kan worden in gezondheidskwesties, zoals in de definitie van gezondheid, determinanten en behandelingen.

Introductie

De variatie tussen mensen in de gedachten die zij hebben en de gedragingen die zij laten zien komt door zowel genetische als omgevingsfactoren, maar ook door de interactie tussen die twee. Om een volledig beeld te krijgen van de oorzaken van gedrag en cognitie is het belangrijk zowel de biologische predisposities als de omgevingsfactoren in acht te nemen. Slechts kijken naar één van de twee factoren is niet voldoende.

Cultuur kan gedefinieerd worden als dat deel van de omgeving dat gecreëerd en gedeeld wordt tussen mensen en over wordt gegeven op de volgende generatie. Culturele psychologie onderzoekt culturele variatie op een systematische manier en is de laatste jaren sterk gegroeid in de breedte van onderzoeksonderwerpen en wetenschappelijke benaderingen. Culturele neurowetenschap houdt zich bezig met de interactie tussen cultuur, geest en de hersenen. Culturele psychologie en culture neurowetenschap samen hebben de basis gelegd voor het onderzoek naar Gen-Cultuur (GxC) interacties. Het GxC kader onderzoekt hoe cultuur de tot uiting koming van genen kan beïnvloeden en hoe culturele invloeden kunnen veranderen afhankelijk van genetische predisposities. Het GxC kader is belangrijk in het begrijpen van gezondheid tussen en binnen maatschappijen. Veel factoren die belangrijk zijn voor zowel fysieke als psychologische gezondheid, zoals behandelingen en interventie strategieën, verschillen per cultuur. Mensen binnen een samenleving verschillen op factoren zoals etniciteit, nationaliteit, religie, regio en sociale klasse. Deze factoren verschillen niet alleen binnen culturen, maar ook tussen culturen. Het gebruiken van een cultureel perspectief kan de kennis over gezondheid in populaties vergroten die in onderzoek vooral van WEIRD proefpersonen gebruik gemaakt hebben. WEIRD staat voor Westers, opgeleid, geïndustrialiseerd, rijk en democratisch. Individuele verschillen in genetische predisposities kunnen gezondheidsuitkomsten ook voorspellen afhankelijk van de culturele context. Er zijn culturele verschillen in hoe mensen een gezond leven proberen te bereiken of behouden.

Gen-Omgeving interacties en onderliggende biologische mechanismen

Het idee dat genen interactie hebben met iets uit de omgeving komt voort uit de Persoon x Situatie Theorie van Mischel & Shoda uit 1995. Deze theorie legt uit hoe persoonlijkheid in interactie staat met de situationele context om gedrag te beïnvloeden. Het nature-nurture debat focust meer op de twee invloeden apart in plaats van de interactie tussen genen en omgeving. Maar het GxO kader omschrijft de fenotypische effecten van interacties tussen individuele genetische variatie en de omgeving. Het kader stelt dat een individu dat genetische predisposities heeft voor een bepaalde psychologische uitkomst alleen deze uitkomst zal hebben wanneer bepaalde omgevingsfactoren in het leven van het individu voorkomen. Caspi et al. (2003) vonden bijvoorbeeld dat het hebben van een kort allel (in plaats van het lange allel) voor het serotonine transport gen de kans op depressieve symptomen alleen verhoogd bij het ervaren van veel stress. Dit soort genen, die in combinatie met een bepaalde omgeving tot ziekte kunnen leiden, worden sinds recent plasticiteit genen genoemd omdat op deze manier de kneedbaarheid van deze genen, in plaats van de valentie, wordt benadrukt. Er zijn GxO interacties gerapporteerd voor verschillende genen, zoals voor de dopamine D4 receptor. Uit onderzoek blijkt dat het dragen van een bepaald gen de kwetsbaarheid voor omgevingsfactoren kan beïnvloeden. Na meerdere onderzoeken blijkt dus dat er bewijs is dat mensen met bepaalde genetische varianten (of plasticiteit genen) meer vatbaar zijn voor omgevingsinvloeden in specifieke domeinen.

Op moleculair niveau interacteren omgevingsfactoren met genen door het beïnvloeden van de regulatie van gen expressie, wat een cruciale link is tussen genen en de fenotypen. Onder gen expressie valt het synthetiseren van een biologisch, functioneel molecuul vanuit DNA en de mogelijkheid om de gen expressie, of tot uiting komen, aan te passen als reactie op fysiologische veranderingen of omgevingscondities. Als je bijvoorbeeld een wondje hebt zorgt dit ervoor dat de genen die belangrijk zijn voor wondherstelling actiever worden. Externe, sociale factoren, zoals stress en sociale isolatie, kunnen gen expressie ook reguleren, ze zijn bijvoorbeeld geassocieerd met slechtere functie van het immuun systeem. Er is moleculair bewijs gevonden voor de relatie tussen sociale isolatie en het verhoogde risico op de ontwikkeling van ontstekingsziektes.

Sociale signaaltransductie is een proces dat verklaart hoe sociale factoren gen expressie kunnen aanpassen door transcriptie factoren. De transcriptie factoren zijn proteïnen die de transcriptie van DNA naar RNA reguleren. De subjectieve ervaring van sociale bedreigingen in de omgeving kunnen de hormoon- en transmitterhuishouding beïnvloeden, wat kan leiden tot veranderingen in de activiteit van transcriptie factoren. De subjectieve inschatting van een sociale situatie bedreiging is meer van meer invloed op transcriptie dan de objectieve waarheid. Mensen verschillen in de gevoeligheid voor sociale signaaltransductie door verschillen in hun genen.

Gedragsmatige en gezondheidsuitkomsten kunnen ook worden beïnvloedt door epigenetica. Dit zijn processen die het tot uiting komen van een gen beïnvloeden, maar de onderliggende genetische volgorde van het DNA niet aanpassen. Moleculaire processen, zoals het toevoegen van methyl groepen (methylatie), kan transcriptie factoren ervan weerhouden om het DNA te beïnvloeden en op deze manier de synthese van genetische producten voorkomen. Zo leidt meer methylatie van de glucocorticoïde receptor promoter in ratten tot reductie van gen expressie en leidt dit tot meer angst.

Bij mensen is er bewijs gevonden dat epigenetische regulatie van genen mogelijk betrokken zijn in sociale processen en mentale gezondheidsuitkomsten. Zo blijkt bijvoorbeeld dat in hoeverre methylatie plaatsvindt van invloed is op het oxytocine receptor gen. Het voorspelt namelijk neurale activatie van gebieden in de hersenen die belangrijk zijn in het verwerken van sociale stimuli, in respons op ambigue sociale stimuli. Genetische variaties in DNA zijn relatief stabiel over de levensduur, maar epigenetische modificaties zijn erg dynamisch. Ze reageren namelijk op situationele condities. Hieruit kan geconcludeerd worden dat epigenetische mechanismen niet alleen van invloed zijn op lange termijn invloeden van omgeving op gen expressie, maar ook voor de korte termijn, snelle veranderingen in het uiting komen van genen, bijvoorbeeld in de respons op een sociale stressor in de omgeving. Het meenemen van cultuur in de GxO interactie is een verrijking en zal bijdragen aan meer kennis over de interactie tussen genen en omgevingsfactoren.

Het Gen-Cultuur interactie kader

De definitie van omgeving in de GxO interactie is erg breed, deze kan namelijk veel onderwerpen omvatten, zoals weer variabiliteit en sociale omgeving. Dit kan specifieker gemaakt worden door sociale omgeving op te delen in persoonlijke omgeving en culturele omgeving.

  • Persoonlijke omgeving: Dit is de individuele variatie in ervaringen en gebeurtenissen, zoals het ervaren van stress in de thuis situatie.

  • Culturele omgeving: Onder deze definitie vallen normen, waarden, overtuigingen, gebruiken en producten die een gezamenlijk systeem van betekenis omvatten. Een voorbeeld is de Westerse opvatting over onafhankelijkheid en persoonlijke keuze.

De meeste wetenschappers zijn het erover eens dat cultuur niet-biologische of niet-genetisch is. Door evolutionaire processen hebben sociale organismen de capaciteit ontwikkeld om cultuur te vormen. Genen en cultuur staan in interactie met elkaar en beïnvloeden elkaar om uiteindelijk de neurale processen die onderliggend zijn aan gedrag en cognitie te vormen. Het is belangrijk cultuur te zien als een verzameling normen, waarden enzovoorts die gecreëerd zijn in plaats van genetisch geërfd zijn. Cultuur moet overgegeven worden op de volgende generatie om in stand te blijven. Cultuur bestaat niet alleen in tastbare dingen, zoals kunst en media, maar ook in de geest van de mensen.

Mechanismen van de GxC interactie

Sommige bekende biologische mechanismen van de GxO interacties suggereren bepaalde mechanismes die culturele omgevingen linken aan genen. Net als dat de subjectieve perceptie van sociale situaties de gen expressie kan beïnvloeden, kunnen verschillen in culturele verwachtingen en normen percepties van sociale situaties veranderen en op deze manier indirect van invloed zijn op de gen expressie. Dezelfde sociale situatie kan verschillend worden gezien, afhankelijk van bij welke cultuur iemand hoort. Andere factoren die implicaties kunnen hebben voor epigenetische processen zijn bijvoorbeeld culturele gebruiken en patronen van interactie. In eeneiige tweelingen kan epigenetische verschillen in de genen zorgen voor veranderingen in slechts één persoon door bijvoorbeeld herhaalde blootstelling aan afwijkende ervaringen. Op deze manier kan dit leiden in verschillen op het gebied van gezondheid.

Bewijs voor GxC interacties

Bewijs voor GxC interacties die relevant zijn voor bepaalde gezondheidsuitkomsten, zoals het ontwikkelen van een ziekte, komt van onderzoeken naar verschillende genen en psychologische processen. De focus van onderzoek naar GxC interacties ligt op genen waarvan bekend is dat ze een rol spelen in omgevingsgevoeligheid en voorspellen dat bepaalde genetische variaties de vatbaarheid van een individu voor een omgeving zullen aanpassen. Een voorbeeld van een GxC interactie is die voor bepaalde gezondheid gerelateerde gedragingen, zoals emotieregulatie. Zo blijkt bijvoorbeeld dat Koreanen met een genotype dat zorgt voor gevoeligheid voor de omgeving of die het oxytocine receptor gen hebben meer emotionele onderdrukking rapporteren dan de Koreanen met een ander genotype. In Europeanen was het tegengestelde patroon te zien. In het algemeen blijkt dat individuen die genetisch gepredisponeerd zijn voor vatbaarheid voor de omgeving zich het meest aanpassen op psychologisch en gedragsmatig gebied die horen bij een cultuur.

De brug tussen GxC interactie en GxC co-evolutie

Het verschil tussen GxC interactie en GxC co-evolutie is dat ze naar verschillende aspecten kijken van de relatie tussen biologische en culturele variatie. Gen x Cultuur co-evolutie theorie geeft een verklaring voor de interacties op macro niveau tussen cultuur en genen, door het gebruiken van het Darwinisme. De theorie gaat er vanuit dat, net als voor genetische varianten, bepaalde kenmerken van een cultuur de individuele fitheid kunnen verhogen en deze kenmerken overgebracht kunnen worden door sociaal leren in een systeem van ‘overerving’ dat anders is dan genetisch overerven. Deze culturele kenmerken dienen dus als aanpassingen aan plaatselijke omgevingen en condities en kunnen dus ontwikkelen (net als dat genen ontwikkelen en aanpassen aan de omgeving). Culturele evolutie heeft waarschijnlijk een belangrijke rol gespeeld omdat het zich sneller aan kon passen aan de omgeving dan genetische evolutie alleen. Culturele systemen dragen bij aan het selecteren van bepaalde omgevingsdrukken waaronder genetische evolutie plaatsvindt. Zo is het ontwikkelen van lactose intolerantie een voorbeeld, in een cultuur waar veel melk werd gedronken werden namelijk meer genen geëvolueerd die te maken hebben met lactose tolerantie. Onderzoek laat zien dat regio’s waar in het verleden meer pathogenen waren vaker collectivistisch zijn. Dit collectivisme kan een beschermende factor zijn voor genetische predisposities voor stemmingsstoornissen. Gen cultuur co-evolutie focust zich op het macro niveau van evolutionaire processen die culturele normen en genetische varianten vormen. Het GxC interactie kader focust op hoe de cultuur en gene met elkaar in interactie staan en op deze manier gedragsmatige en psychologische uitkomsten beïnvloeden op het individuele niveau. Maar toch blijft genetische variatie bestaan in een populatie. De GxO interactie verklaart hoe individuen binnen een cultuur zich anders kunnen gedragen als gevolg van de genetische predisposities. Onderzoeken naar moleculaire biologische kunnen bijdragen aan het begrijpen van de onderliggende biologische mechanismen en cultureel onderzoek draagt bij aan het voorspellen van de onderliggende psychologische mechanismen. Gen en Cultuur onderzoek bij elkaar geeft een volledig beeld van de (interactie tussen) processen die tot verschillende uitkomsten kunnen leiden.

Implicaties voor de culturele psychologie

GxC interacties verklaren hoe genetische predisposities anders ontwikkelen, afhankelijk van de culturele context, en hoe culturele factoren mensen anders beïnvloeden, afhankelijk van de individuele verschillen op het genetische niveau. Genen kunnen de effecten van cultuur beperken door mensen een range van mogelijke karaktertrekken of gedragingen te geven, en de omgeving en cultuur selecteren dan welke mogelijkheden echt tot uiting komen. Er zijn culturele verschillen gevonden in genen die belangrijk zijn bij onder andere het zoeken van emotionele steun, emotieregulatie en focus van de aandacht. Waarschijnlijk zijn bepaalde combinaties van genen, en niet slechts één gen, gerelateerd aan cultureel normatieve responsen voor bepaalde, specifieke uitkomsten. Dit zorgt ervoor dat culturele verschillen op deze uitkomsten meer uitgesproken en duidelijk zijn voor mensen met een ander genotype (genetische predisposities) dan anderen.

Co-variatie van culturele en genetische verschillen

Uit onderzoek blijkt dat genen die veel onderzocht zijn in psychologie, zoals OXTR (betrokken bij oxytocine), verschillende genotype verdelingen hebben in verschillen etnische groepen. Soms correleren deze afwijkingen in verdelingen met verschillen in culturele normen. Een voorbeeld is dat Oost Aziaten, in vergelijking met Europeanen, hogere frequenties hebben van het polymorfisme 5-HTTLPR s allel, wat is geassocieerd met stress reactiviteit. OXTR polymorfisme komt weer meer voor bij Europeanen in vergelijking met Aziaten. OXTR is geassocieerd met sociale bonding, sociale aansluiting en gevoeligheid voor de omgeving. Dit laatste klinkt misschien een beetje counter intuïtief. Genetische profielen van de verschillende etnische groepen zijn het resultaat van natuurlijke selectie processen en uitdagingen die specifiek horen bij de regionale omgeving. culturele tendensen kunnen niet simpel uitgelegd worden als gemiddelde fenotype tendenties in een populatie. De relatie tussen een gen en een tendentie is waarschijnlijk gecompliceerder. Het is niet altijd duidelijk hoe specifiek de associaties zijn tussen een gen en een psychologische trek. Zo spelen er meestal meerdere genen een rol bij de totstandkoming van één eigenschap. De ongelijke verdelingen in populaties leidt wel tot de vraag hoe het kan dat alleen een kleine, genetische minderheid in een culturele groep bepaalde culturele normatieve neigingen laat zien. Het is mogelijk dat het behoud van culturele, normatieve neigingen wordt gevormd door meerdere genen die met elkaar samenwerken. Het is mogelijk een meer normaal verdeeld profiel van een populatie te krijgen door meerdere polymorfismen in combinatie met elkaar te bekijken. Het is waarschijnlijk dat een bepaald gen, of combinatie van genen, iemand vatbaar maken om kwetsbaar te zijn voor een klein deel van de culturele omgeving. en als geheel kunnen we dan culturele patronen zien. Het is lastig te onderzoeken of meerdere genen samen werken op een interactieve, compenserende of toevoegende manier. Het zou ook kunnen dat veel van de cultureel specifieke normen nog niet stabiel genoeg zijn om gereflecteerd te worden door genen.

Uit alle onderzoeken blijkt dat genen en cultuur op veel manier gerelateerd zijn aan elkaar. Maar nog veel is onbekend, bijvoorbeeld hoe genen uiteindelijk echt tot karaktertrekken leiden. Het is belangrijk meerdere perspectieven met elkaar te combineren om uiteindelijk meer kennis te vergaren. De velden die gecombineerd worden zijn onder andere psychologie, gedrag genetica, populatie genetica en antropologie.

Hoe kan het GxC kader worden toegepast in onderzoek naar gezondheid?

Er zijn veel culturele verschillen op het gebied van basale, psychologische fenomenen. Deze hebben belangrijke implicaties voor het begrijpen van mensen van wat gezond is en of zij positieve gezondheid uitkomsten zullen bereiken. Er is sterk bewijs gevonden voor de implicaties van sociale relaties voor gezondheid en deze link is waarschijnlijk universeel. Maar de betekenis van een sociale relatie kan verschillend zijn per cultuur. Het is dus nuttig voor gen en gezondheid onderzoek om de rol van culturele contexten, die zo normen en verwachtingen van sociale relaties kunnen vormen, te onderzoeken. Er zijn culturele verschillen in gezondheidsuitkomsten, zoals de bereidheid tot het volgen van een behandeling en de effectiviteit van een behandeling. Ervaren discriminatie is ook van invloed op gezondheid, het is dus belangrijk dat de invloed hiervan meegenomen wordt in onderzoek. Ook sociale klasse en dynamiek tussen groepen is van grote invloed. Het kan dat minderheden minder mentale behandelingen volgen dan meerderheden, zelfs na het aanpassen in een nieuwe cultuur. Er is ook bewijs gevonden dat minderheden lagere kwaliteit van behandeling zouden krijgen. Minderheid of meerderheid zijn is zelfs van invloed op de leeftijdsverwachting.

Mensen van verschillende culturen kunnen verschillende symptomatologie laten zien voor mentale problemen en verschillende overtuigingen hebben over een behandeling. Zo zoeken Japanners minder vaak steun in besloten relaties en professionele diensten in vergelijking met Amerikanen, dit verschil kan verklaard worden door culturele verschillen in bereidheid te praten over problemen. Het is belangrijk om in acht te nemen hoe iemand zichzelf ziet in relatie tot anderen en te bekijken welke genetische predisposities iemand heeft die hem of haar meer vatbaar kunnen maken voor stress in de context.

Culturele neurowetenschap onderzoekt de complexe manier waarop cultuur en biologie met elkaar interacteren. Uit recent onderzoek is een kader ontwikkeld voor het begrijpen van hoe genetische en omgeving factoren psychologie kunnen beïnvloeden via neurale processen en hoe de cultuur deze processen vormt op meerdere niveaus en hoe dit wordt beperkt bij de evolutie processen.

Toekomstig onderzoek naar GxC interacties

Subjectieve ervaringen gebruiken is een manier van onderzoek doen naar cultuur. In een onderzoek naar genen en cultuur kwam naar voren dat lagere culturele harmonie samen ging met meer depressieve symptomen, dit was vooral het geval voor mensen met een potentiele genetische link naar depressie gerelateerde condities. Ongelijkheden in subjectieve ervaring en de voorgeschreven normen kunnen implicaties hebben voor gezondheid uitkomsten.

Culturele primen kan gebruikt worden voor causale gevolgtrekkingen over de relaties tussen culturele informatie en de uitkomst die mensen hebben met verschillende genetische predisposities. Verder onderzoek kan ook focussen op de mechanismen waardoor GxC interactie ontstaat.

Resultaten uit GxC interactie onderzoeken laten zien dat genetische predisposities zich anders manifesteren afhankelijk van wat normaal is een culturele context. De relatie tussen genetische predisposities en gedragingen hangt af van culturele betekenissen van gedragingen.

Implicaties van GxC onderzoek voor het algemene beleid voor gezondheid
Mensen verspreid over de wereld schatten optimale gezondheid anders in en denken ook dat dit anders bereikt wordt. De WHO geeft wel een definitie van gezondheid en bijbehorende sociale determinanten. Welzijn wordt ook anders bereikt over de wereld.

Het is ook belangrijk om de individuele verschillen tussen mensen binnen een cultuur in acht te nemen. Een voorbeeld is in hoeverre iemand extravert is, dit beïnvloedt sterk in welke sociale situaties iemand zich op zijn gemak voelt en zich het gezondst en prettigst voelt. Het is mogelijk dat genen zich anders ontwikkelen, afhankelijk van iemands persoonlijke, culturele omgeving.

Publiek beleid voor gezondheid heeft als doel om gezondheid te promoten en ziekte te voorkomen in de populatie. Het vinden van effectief is lastig omdat het voor iedereen anders kan zijn. Beleid moet op maat gemaakt worden om te passen bij verschillende populaties. Men moet wel in het achterhoofd houden dat genetische predisposities voor uitkomsten van gezondheid niet uniform zijn, ze kunnen verschillen per populatie.

Het gebruiken van een GxC kader kan effectief zijn in het benaderen van gezondheidszaken die gerelateerd zijn aan de etiologie, het verloop en de uitkomst in verschillende culturen. Culturele factoren kunnen van invloed zijn in de kwetsbaarheid voor bepaalde (mentale) ziektes. Voor veel ziektes is het zo dat genen en omgeving in interactie werken, bijvoorbeeld in het geval van depressie en de aan/ afwezigheid van het allel 5-HTTLPR. In collectivistische landen is hebben van dit allel geassocieerd met minder voorkomen van depressie, maar dit zou kunnen komen door het bufferende effect van de collectivistische, culturele waarden.

Conclusie

Genen spelen een erg belangrijke rol in het bepalen van risico’s en uitkomsten op het gebied van gezondheid. Onderzoek naar genen geeft onmisbare aanbevelingen voor goed beleid. Het is belangrijk om zich te realiseren dat het publieke gezondheidsbeleid deel is van de cultuur. Het is onder andere gevormd door waarden, normen en overtuigingen die de mensen hebben. Dus veranderingen in het beleid leiden tot veranderingen in de culturele context waarin iemand leeft.

Het is niet voldoende cultuur en genen apart van elkaar te bekijken, de interactie is namelijk erg belangrijk. Het GxC kader geeft een rijker beeld van gezondheid in verschillende culturen.

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Achieving cultural appropriateness in health promotion programs targeted and tailored approaches - Kreuter et al. - 2003 - Artikel

Achieving cultural appropriateness in health promotion programs targeted and tailored approaches - Kreuter et al. - 2003 - Artikel

Gezondheidpromotieprogramma’s cultureel geschikt maken: Programma’s met targeting en tailoring

Cultuur- en gezondheidsgedrag

Cultuur wordt geleerd, gedeeld en doorgegeven van generatie naar generatie en is te herkennen aan de waarden, normen, gewoontes, systemen, levensstijlen en sociale gewoontes van een groep. De sociale karakteristieken familierollen, communicatiepatronen, in hoeverre iemand gelooft controle te hebben, individualisme, collectivisme en spiritualiteit kunnen ook helpen om cultuur te definiëren als deze factoren belangrijk zijn voor de groep. Zulke factoren kunnen ook (in)direct gerelateerd zijn aan gezondheidsgedragingen en hoe een gezondheidspromotie wordt ontvangen. Je moet dus een programma opstellen dat gepast is voor die/elke cultuur. Hiervoor moet je culturen kunnen identificeren en beschrijven, begrijpen hoe dat gerelateerd is aan gedrag, en dit kunnen toepassen. Helaas worden vandaag de dag culturen meer aangenomen dan onderzocht. Daardoor past niet elke subcultuur in één categorie: soms meer, soms geen enkele.

Hoe stel je vast wat een groep vormt, welke groep de hoogste prioriteit krijgt en wie bij welke groep hoort? Dit is lastig en zal altijd een limitatie blijven. Het is niet mogelijk elke interventie voor elke mogelijke (sub)cultuur gepast te maken, maar we mogen ook niet overgeneraliseren en er te makkelijk over doen. Er zijn verschillende strategieën om culturele gepastheid (CG) te bereiken:

Veel voorkomende strategieën om CG te versterken

Er zijn vijf categorieën van reeds gevonden strategieën:

  1. “Non-centrale” strategieën (Engels: peripheral) : een programma zo inpakken dat het een bepaalde groep aantrekt (kleuren, plaatjes, lettertypes, stellende titels, etc. die relevant zijn voor die groep). Deze strategie doet beroep op de non-centrale informatieroute en kan zo interesse wekken, een sfeer vaststellen of geloofwaardigheid creeëren. Uiteindelijk zal zo de ontvankelijkheid en acceptatie van de boodschap bij die groep omhoog gaan.

  2. “Bewijsstrategieën” (Engels: evidential) vergroten de relevantie van een gezondheidsprobleem voor een groep door bewijs te geven van de impact op die groep (zoals: “Dit jaar zullen zoveel Afro-Amerikanen gediagnosticeerd worden met dit soort kanker, en zoveel zullen daaraan doodgaan”). Deze stellingen vergroten het bewustzijn van die ziekte, zorgen, en de waargenomen kwetsbaarheid (=waargenomen kans om iets te krijgen).

  3. Taalstrategieën (Engels: linguistic) maken een programma toegankelijker voor een groep door het programma beschikbaar te maken in hun taal, bijvoorbeeld door te vertalen, maar daarbij is het soms lastig de boodschap te behouden. Je behoudt bij deze strategie alleen wel het probleem dat een programma, ook al is het geschreven in jouw taal, niet per se geschikt is voor jouw cultuur.

  4. Constituent-involving” strategieën betrekken leden van de doelgroep bij het programma. Je legt nadruk op de groepsleden die meewerken aan het programma, waarbij dus ook leken kunnen meedenken in het programma. Het is een goede manier om een taalstrategie te versterken, maar het kan ook een belangrijk inzicht geven in de culturele karakteristieken die niet makkelijk te identificeren zijn.

  5. Socioculturele strategieën bespreken gezondheidsproblemen in de context van bredere sociale of culturele waarden van de doelgroep. Zo krijgt de boodschap context en betekenis voor de doelgroep. De culturele waarden worden door het programma erkend en begrepen van binnenuit. Dit kan op twee manieren ingezet worden: bij het beslissen welke (bestaande) interventie het meest gepast is (hier kun je ook weer van leren) en hoe je een nieuw programma kunt opstellen.

Culturele targeting

Met “targeting” wordt bedoeld: een benadering voor een interventie voor een bepaalde (subgroep van een) populatie die rekening houdt met karakteristieken van die groep. De vijf bovenstaande strategieën zijn allemaal een vorm van targeting. Een programma kan zelfs alle vijf de strategieën gebruiken om CG te worden voor een groep, maar wat belangrijk is is dat er maar één programma is voor de groep, en dus hetzelfde voor elk lid van die groep. Targeting kan gedragsverandering helpen promoten en is relatief goed betaalbaar, maar er wordt bij targeting ook aangenomen dat leden van een groep genoeg overeenkomsten hebben om één benadering voor heel de groep te hebben.

Culturele “tailoring”

Tailoring is een manier om een boodschap één specifiek persoon te laten bereiken, gebaseerd op eigenschappen die alleen die persoon heeft, die gerelateerd zijn aan de gewenste uitkomst van de boodschap, en die je weet door individuele assessment. Dit is dus gericht op individuen in plaats van groepen (zoals bij targeting) en is gebaseerd op de verschillen tussen individuen, en niet de overeenkomsten (zoals bij targeting). Een belangrijke vraag is of je een programma kunt tailoren op een cultuur, maar daarin ligt de paradox dat een cultuur alweer een groep is. Je kunt wel bedenken dat er een spectrum is aan iets van een cultuur: de hele groep heeft het, maar het ene lid in mindere mate dan een ander lid van de groep. Dus een programma dat zich richt op een bepaald component van een cultuur zal de ene persoon meer aantrekken dan de ander. Je zou dus, om echt te tailoren, de culturele kenmerken bij de individu moeten meten, niet de groep.

Culturele tailoring toepassen: een voorbeeld

We nemen een voorbeeld om te laten zien hoe gezondheidsinformatie cultureel getailored kan worden: het project “Culturele tailoring voor kankerpreventie in gekleurde vrouwen”. Het doel was deze groep meer mammografieën (röntgenfoto’s) en meer inname van groente en fruit. De doelgroep werd eerst gemaakt op basis van demografische (leeftijd, afkomst en sekse) en geografische (waar je woont) eigenschappen. Daarna werden de vier belangrijkste componenten geïdentificeerd: religiositeit, collectivisme, trots op je afkomst en tijdperceptie. Deze componenten zijn alle vier meetbaar, relevant voor het onderwerp en relevant voor de doelgroep.

  • Religiositeit: Dit gaat over aanwezigheid in de kerk en bidden, maar ook over deelname in religieuze evenementen, spiritualiteit en geloof in God als veroorzaker van gebeurtenissen. 63% van de vrouwen in een onderzoek van Haire-Joshu et al. gaf aan dat haar kerk een belangrijke factor was in het promoten van een gezonde levensstijl, maar dat gold meer voor zondigende gedragingen (roken, drinken) dan voor gezond eten of meer bewegen. Afrikaans Amerikaanse vrouwen geloofden significant meer dan andere etnische groepen dat bidden een ziekte kan genezen, en sportten dan ook minder dan atheïsten en waren minder actief met gezondheid bezig. Religiositeit kan ook een copingstijl zijn om met ziekte om te gaan. Als je aan kerkgemeenschappen gezondheidsboodschappen geeft, onthouden ze de boodschap beter als ze spiritueel georiënteerd zijn dan wanneer ze expert-georiënteerd zijn. Religiositeit moet dus rekening houden met de aspecten van religie die belangrijk zijn voor de individu.

  • Collectivisme: het geloof dat de maatschappij bestaat uit de groep of de familie, niet het individu. Samenwerking, voor elkaar zorgen, loyaliteit, hulp, vergeving, zekerheid van familie, ware vriendschap en respect voor tradities en ouderen staan hier hoog in het vaandel. Afrikaans Amerikanen scoren hoger op collectivisme dan blanken, latino’s en Aziaten en voelen ook een sterker verband met hun familie dan blanken. Hoe vaker Afrikaanse Amerikanen contact hebben met hun familie, hoe tevredener ze vaak zijn met hun leven. Afrikaans-Amerikanen hebben vaker collectivistische gebruiken, zoals informele adoptie, wonen vaker samen met de hele familie (inclusief ooms, tantes, etc.), dan blanken. Als je doelgroep collectivistisch is, richt de boodschap dan op families.

  • Trots voor ras: je kunt als etnische minderheid je eigen cultuur behouden, de cultuur van je huidige land overnemen of van beide tradities aannemen/behouden. Veel studies over dit onderwerp onderzoeken niet de relatie met gezondheidsstudies, maar enkele wel: bezig zijn met je dieet en bepaalde gezondheidsovertuigingen komen vaker voor bij Afrikaans Amerikanen dan bij andere etnische groepen, vooral in wijken met alleen maar mensen van deze groep. Als de trots voor je ras groot is bij je doelgroep, richt je boodschap dan op ziekte en gezondheid bij die groep (“Wist je dat kanker vaker voorkomt bij zwarten dan bij blanken?”).

  • Tijdperceptie: tijd heeft een verleden, een heden en een toekomst, elk in te delen in bepaalde entiteiten. Soms wordt er over tijd gesproken als een product: je kunt het maken, (be)sparen, verspillen (als tijd in het verleden niet bijdragt aan het heden) en zelfs kopen. Je kunt toekomst-georiënteerd zijn, dan wil je toewerken naar een toekomst en hier controle over hebben: je vertoont dan vaak al gezonde gedragingen. Mensen met een lage SES, lagere opleiding en van sommige culturen hebben meer een korte-termijn-oriëntatie. Afrikaans Amerikanenleven meer in het heden dan blanken, zelfs na het controleren voor SES en opleiding. Voor een gezondheidsprogramma is het goed om te wijzen op de connectie tussen je gedrag nu en de consequenties later.

Discussie

Nog niet veel programma’s hebben echt moeite gedaan om CG te zijn. Toch verandert dit langzaam, want er komt steeds meer erkenning dat EG programma’s effectiever zijn. Recentelijk wordt er meer aan targeting gedaan. Het zou wel nog waardevoller zijn als je ook naar de individu gaat kijken: tailoring.

Of getailorde programma’s effectiever of financieel gezien effectiever zijn is niet bekend; daar wordt nu onderzoek naar gedaan. Kies je strategie(ën) goed uit voor je doelgroep.

De eerste generatie onderzoek naar gezondheidspromotie negeerde cultuur eigenlijk voor het grootste deel (was vooral gefocust op blanke mensen uit de middelste sociale klasse). De tweede generatie weet al wel dat een programma bij één populatie wel effectief kan zijn, en bij de tweede niet. Er komt langzaamaan vergelijkend onderzoek over de werking van de strategieën hierboven genoemd. Zo kunnen er goede, cultureel geschikte interventies worden ontwikkeld.

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Effectiveness of cultural adaptions of interventions aimed at smoking cessation, diet, and,or physical activiy in ethnic minorities - Nierkens et al. - 2013 - Artikel

Effectiveness of cultural adaptions of interventions aimed at smoking cessation, diet, and,or physical activiy in ethnic minorities - Nierkens et al. - 2013 - Artikel

In maatschappijen met een gemiddeld hoog inkomen komen vaker chronische ziekten voor bij de etnische minderheden. Een belangrijke risicofactor hiervoor is het gezondheidsgerelateerde gedrag, zoals roken, diëten en fysieke activiteit. Voor het verminderen van de ziektes die dat gedrag veroorzaakt, zijn interventies die gezonder gedrag promoten belangrijk. Deze interventies zijn echter vaak gericht op de algemene populatie en niet op etnische minderheden. Het verhogen van de culturele sensitiviteit van levensstijlinterventies zou kunnen leiden tot een verbeterde effectiviteit van die interventies.

Culturele sensitiviteit

Culturele sensitiviteit kan worden omschreven als de mate waarin in het design, de overbracht en de evaluatie van levensstijlinterventies rekening wordt gehouden met de culturele aspecten van de doelgroep (denk aan de etnische en culturele kenmerken, ervaringen, normen, waarden, gedragspatronen, overtuigingen, geschiedenis, sociale krachten, etc.). Met behulp van culturele adaptaties kan men culturele sensitiviteit bewerkstelligen. Voorbeelden van culturele adaptaties zijn het matchen van de interventies aan de kenmerken van de doelgroep, of het aanpakken van de culturele waarden van de populatie. Er zijn al een aantal studies die hebben gekeken naar de effectiviteit van cultureel geadapteerde interventies voor gezondheidsproblemen. Helaas maken deze onderzoeken niet duidelijk of de effectiviteit wordt veroorzaakt door de culturele adaptatie. Ook zijn sommige resultaten misleidend, wanneer de interventiegroep en de controlegroep verschillende interventies ondergingen. De enige goede manier om naar de effectiviteit van de culturele adaptatie alleen te kijken, is met een onderzoeksdesign waarin de enige variantie tussen de controlegroep en de interventiegroep wordt veroorzaakt door de specifieke culturele adaptatie.

Surface-structure en deep-structure

Culturele adaptaties hebben twee typen. Surface-structure adaptaties zijn adaptaties die de materialen of berichten aanpassen aan de observeerbare en oppervlakkige kenmerken van de doelgroep. Bijvoorbeeld een interventie waarin foto’s van de doelgroep worden gebruikt. Deep-structure adaptaties zijn adaptaties die zich richten op de diepe culturele waarden en etnische- , historische- , sociale- en omgevingsfactoren die het gezondheidsgedrag beïnvloeden. Bijvoorbeeld een interventie die zich richt op de rol van eten met betrekking tot gastvrijheid binnen de cultuur.

Dit onderzoek

Dit onderzoek maakt een vergelijking tussen studies over interventies zonder culturele adaptaties en studies over interventies met culturele adaptaties. Hierbij wordt gefocust op roken, diëten en fysieke activiteit. De doelen van dit onderzoek luiden als volgt: a) Het systematisch onderzoeken van de effectiviteit van culturele adaptaties in interventies die gericht zijn op het stoppen met roken, diëten en fysieke activiteit bij etnische minderheden die leven in maatschappijen met gemiddeld hoge inkomens, b) Het onderzoeken van de aspecten van culturele adaptaties die mogelijk deze effectiviteit veroorzaken.

Methoden

De studies die in dit onderzoek worden bekeken zijn aan de hand van een speciale zoekstrategie geselecteerd. De studies moesten voldoen aan drie criteria. Ten eerste moest de studie een beschrijving geven van het effect van de levensstijlinterventie die cultureel is aangepast aan een specifieke volwassen etnische minderheid die leeft in een samenleving met een gemiddeld hoog inkomen. Ten tweede moest de studie een controlegroep hebben, wel of niet gerandomiseerd, die een interventie zonder een of meerdere culturele adaptaties is ondergaan en waarvan de effectiviteit is onderzocht. Tot slot moesten de studies gedragsverandering met betrekking tot roken, diëten en fysieke activiteit hebben gemeten.

Eerste resultaten

Uit de eerste analyses bleek er zo’n grote variëteit te zijn met betrekking tot de interventie-uitkomsten dat het niet mogelijk bleek te zijn om een gedetailleerde analyse te maken over de effectgroottes. In plaats daarvan werd elke studie besproken en werd er informatie gegeven over het onderzoeksdesign, de interventie en de culturele adaptaties, de doelgroep, de setting en gerapporteerde interventie-effectiviteit. Gedetailleerde informatie over de onderzoeksresultaten, zoals de effectgroottes, worden in tabellen weergegeven.

Effectieve interventies en effectieve adaptaties

Vijf van de zeventien onderzochte studies die een of meer culturele adaptaties hebben onderzocht, vonden significante resultaten. Drie studies vonden een significante afname in het rookgedrag, een studie vond significante resultaten met betrekking tot diëten en fysieke activiteit, en een studie die zich richtte op alle drie de gedragingen vond ook significante resultaten. Studies die zich alleen richtten op of diëten of fysieke activiteit vonden geen significante resultaten. De adaptaties die in die onderzoeken zijn toegepast verschillen onderling veel van elkaar. Ze hebben met elkaar gemeen dat ze allemaal zijn toegevoegd aan een standaardinterventie van telefonisch counseling die is aangepast voor taal en cultuur. De adaptaties waren zowel deep-structure als surface-structure. Eén telefonische counseling sessie werd aangepast aan de motieven en obstakels van de Afro-Amerikaanse cultuur, een vorm van een deep-structure adaptatie. In een ander onderzoek werd een zelf-help-gids uitgereikt waarin Afro-Amerikaanse modellen werden gebruikt en informatie werd gegeven over roken door Afro-Amerikanen, een voorbeeld van een surface-structure adaptatie.

Adaptatiekenmerken

Het zou kunnen zijn dat de adaptaties bepaalde kenmerken hebben waardoor zij wel of niet effectief zijn. Er konden vijf categorieën van adaptaties worden onderscheiden:

  • Surface-structure adaptatie versus deep-structure adaptatie. Hier werd geen verschil gevonden in effectiviteit.

  • Adaptaties die gebruik maakten van maatschappelijke verzorgers versus adaptaties die voornamelijk waren gebaseerd op het incorporeren van culturele waarden. Hier werd geen verschil gevonden in effectiviteit.

  • Familiaire waarden versus religieuze waarden. Er werden significante effecten gevonden bij interventies die de familiaire waarden erbij betrokken. Er werden geen significante effecten gevonden bij de religieuze waarden.

  • Intensiteit van de adaptatie. Er werden significante effecten gevonden, waarschijnlijk doordat de culturele adaptatie leidt tot een toename van de interventie-intensiteit.

  • Aantal geteste adaptaties. Er werden significante effecten gevonden wanneer meerdere adaptaties samen werden toegepast.

Discussie

Dit artikel kijkt naar de effectiviteit van specifieke culturele adaptaties in interventies voor etnische minderheden die gericht zijn op het stoppen met roken, diëten en het verhogen van de fysieke activiteit. Er werden zeventien studies geïdentificeerd die de effectiviteit van een of meerdere culturele adaptaties bekeken. De adaptaties varieerden van het incorporeren van sociaal-culturele waarden van de doelgroep tot aan het inzetten van maatschappelijke verzorgers, van enkele adaptaties tot aan ‘pakketen’ van adaptaties, en van surface-structure adaptaties tot aan deep-structure adaptaties. In vijf studies werd gevonden dat de geadapteerde interventie significante resultaten had. Deze betroffen vooral interventies die zich richten op het stoppen met roken. Twaalf andere studies vonden geen significante resultaten, ook al werden wel trends waargenomen die wezen op de positieve effecten van culturele adaptatie. Studies hadden meer kans op het vinden van significante resultaten wanneer de interventie een pakket van culturele adaptaties bevat, wanneer de culturele adaptaties ook een hogere interventie-intensiteit met zich meebrengt, en wanneer de familiaire waarden werden geïncorporeerd.

Conclusies

Uit dit onderzoek worden drie belangrijke conclusies getrokken:

  • Interventies kunnen effectiever zijn wanneer er een pakket van adaptaties aan wordt toegevoegd, wanneer de adaptatie de invloed van de familie behandeld, en wanneer de adaptatie zorgt voor een hogere interventie-intensiteit.

  • Adaptaties met betrekking tot het stoppen met roken lijken effectiever te zijn dan adaptaties met betrekking tot diëten en fysieke activiteit.

  • Er zijn meer systematische experimenten nodig waar men zich richt op het onderzoeken van de beste combinatie van culturele adaptaties onder verschillende populaties in verschillende settings.

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