Summary of Applying Social Psychology: From Problems to Solutions by Buunk and Van Vugt - 2nd edition

How do you apply social psychology? - Chapter 1

Social psychology is a science that tries to build knowledge through experiments and measurements. Although social psychology cannot explain social problems, it can be used to find solutions. Based on a social problem, the upcoming chapter shows how a theoretical model is developed on which an intervention is based. This will be done using the PATH (Problem, Analysis, Test, Help) method.

What steps are there in the PATH method?

Step 1 - Problem: formulating a problem definition

It has become apparent that in recent years fewer and fewer people give donations to reduce HIV / AIDS in high-risk areas such as Africa. A group of volunteers would like to start a campaign that will make people donate more money. They are struggling to determine what this campaign should look like. For this, they engaged a social psychologist to gain insight into what would prompt people to donate more money. The psychologist will start with the first step of the PATH method: formulating a problem definition. The psychologist defines the problem as follows: many people in Africa suffer from HIV / AIDS and there is not enough funding to provide them with adequate forms of medical or psychological assistance. What factors determine the willingness of potential donors to donate for this issue? How can we set up a fundraising campaign to help people living with HIV / AIDS?

Step 2 - Analysis: finding an explanation for the problem

To define the factors influencing people's willingness to donate money, the psychologist asks many questions that can be answered based on literature on social psychology. He looks at literature on altruism, pro social behavior and social influence.

First, the psychologist looks at the literature on pro-social behavior and formulates the problem in terms of two general questions:

1. When are people most likely to help others?
2. What attributes of victims provoke help responses?

After researching literature that can answer these questions, the psychologist comes to the conclusion that there are three different kinds of help:

1. Emergency intervention: helping someone who is the victim of a robbery or accident.
2. Organizational helping: offering to take on an administrative task at the request of a manager.
3. Sharing and donating resources: donating money to a good cause.

Although there is much less literature on the latter form of help, the psychologist eventually comes to Shalom Schwartz's model. This is a theoretical model applicable to all forms of helping. In the model there are several steps that influence people's pro-social behavior. These are the most important steps:

1. Awareness: there must be a realization that others need help. The perceived need must be prominent, clear and serious.
2. Opportunities to help: people should be aware that there are opportunities to help people with HIV / AIDS.
3. Ability to help: people must recognize their own ability to help. For example, it should be emphasized that even small donations are highly appreciated.
4. Personal norms: these are feelings of moral obligations that cause people to help others.
5. Responsibility: People need to have some sense of responsibility for the problem in order to be involved in providing help.

In addition, it can also be found in literature that people with a disease arouse more sympathy when they are not considered responsible for their fate. Based on this, the psychologist concludes that one of the main goals of the campaign must be to suppress the idea that people in Africa with HIV / AIDS are themselves responsible for their illness. A sense of empathy must also be evoked in potential donors. This happens when people can identify with the victims. For example, because they have the same age, position or values.

The volunteer team states that people can react differently to victims or disasters abroad than in their own country. Here comes the German psychologist Leon Montada. He argues that helping is not related to empathy, but to personal standards and one's sense of responsibility to help. This sense of responsibility is caused by the guilt of people with privileged lives, anger at inequality in the world and the perception that people in poor countries are not responsible for their fate. After feeding this theory back to the volunteer team, they focus more on the injustice that HIV / AIDS victims receive in third world countries and that poverty and inadequate health care mean that help for people with HIV / AIDS is very much needed.

By formulating these, the psychologist takes into account the following theory: the theory of "belief in a just world". This is a theory of Canadian social psychologist Melvin Lerner, who argues that people have a natural tendency to believe that they live in a fair world where everyone gets what they deserve. For example, people are especially upset by the unexplained leading of others. Based on all the findings obtained from the social psychological literature, the psychologist creates a process model.

Step 3 - Test: develop and test the process model

One problem is that not enough research has been done into the relationship between guilt and helping, so it is not possible to make firm statements about this. Many issues are therefore twofold and cannot be incorporated into the campaign with certainty. For example, HIV / AIDS is a disease that people say is indeed the fault of the person concerned (it could have been prevented through safe sexual contact). It is therefore not certain whether these views will work in the campaign.

Step 4 - Help: intervention program

The team of volunteers now has several factors that can increase help behavior. The campaign will look like this:

1. Personal profiles of people with HIV / AIDS in Africa are presented who, despite their illness, are trying to make the best of the situation, but apparently need medical and psychological help that is not available at the moment.
2. Emphasize that due to limited information, poverty, and lack of contraceptives, people with HIV / AIDS are unaware of the risks of unsafe sexual contact and ways to prevent infection. As a result, they cannot be held personally responsible for contracting the disease.
3. Feelings of moral obligation are evoked both by showing that people with HIV / AIDS in Africa are in dire need of help and by evoking a sense of injustice about poverty in Africa.
4. The messages will be mainly positive to avoid forming negative attitudes towards people with HIV / AIDS.
5. It is made clear that any donation, however small, will help. It will also be made clear what exactly the donations will be used for.
6. To lower the threshold for people to donate, it is possible to donate via the Internet.

Applying social psychology: the road from problem to intervention?

The PATH method helps social psychologists to develop a theoretically based intervention program relatively quickly and easily. However, there are some pitfalls. For example, it can take a long time to define a problem, and a lot of deliberation to identify the most important elements of the problem. In addition, it may be that there is not much relevant literature or too much relevant literature on the subject. Even if these have worked in the past, that does not guarantee success next time.

The PATH method can be explained in four main steps:

1. Problem: from the problem to a problem definition; defining the problem.
2. Analysis: from a problem definition to an analysis and explanation; formulating applicable concepts and developing theory-based explanations.
3. Test: from statements to a process model; developing and testing an explanatory process model.
4. Help: from a process model to interventions; develop and evaluate a program of intervention.

Step 1 - Problem: From the problem to a problem definition

The problem definition is usually much more extensive than that in the example about HIV / AIDS. This is because the team of volunteers were already a step further: they felt that more attention should be paid to the HIV / AIDS problem and started a campaign to this end. Usually a psychologist starts more at the root of a problem when a problem definition needs to be formed. For this it is very important that it is well described what the problem is. Once this has happened, there are many other questions to ask: why is it actually a problem and who is it a problem for? In addition, the main causes of the problem must be identified. The target group to which the intervention will be applied must also be determined. Finally, the "key aspects" must be found. This means that a good problem definition makes it clear that the problem is an applied form rather than a basic form and is formulated in concrete terms. It is also important here that the problem has social psychological aspects and that the problem is solvable. If a problem cannot be defined by a few terms, it is probably not suitable for a PATH analysis.

Step 2 - Analysis: from a problem definition to an analysis and explanation

When the problem is defined in terms of one or more social psychological constructs, the second step is to come up with a social psychological explanation of the problem. For this, it must first be determined what the outcome variable is: which variable must ultimately be changed?

Sometimes it is not so obvious what to look for in the literature. Even when this is clear, there can be many different theories. For example, there are "social exchange" and "reciprocity" theories. These theories emphasize the role of selfishness in helping. In this way people feel good when they have done something for someone else. In addition, there are empathy-altruism theories. The basic idea of ​​this theory is that empathy motivates altruistic behaviors aimed at alleviating the suffering of a victim.

In order to determine the validity of social psychological theories, it is important to determine to what extent the experiments used for the theory are applicable to the real world. This refers to the external validity of an experiment. It is possible that the findings of a study, due to the specific research question or limitations in the samples, are applicable to a limited number of real-life situations.

Step 3 - Test: from statements to a process model

The process model has an outcome variable that is affected. The model must mainly contain variables that can be influenced and must describe the relationship between the variables in the form of a process model. This process model is the core of the PATH method. In general, the model only specifies a few possible relationships between the variables. This forces researchers to be selective, so that not everything is explained by everything. It is sometimes difficult to find in the literature how certain variables influence each other. If nothing can be found about a specific variable, it is good to look at the more general form of the variable concerned.

Step 4 - Help: from a process model to an intervention

This is the most difficult step in the process. It is important that the intervention program mainly contains factors that can be influenced by intervention. Many social psychological variables, such as attitudes and social norms, can be influenced by interventions, but factors such as sex, personality or other deeply rooted traits or values ​​cannot. The step from testing to intervention is a very big one. The psychologist must devise as many intervention programs as possible. Especially the shaping of the details takes a lot of work.

What are problems when applying theories?

It is difficult to apply social psychological theories to social problems, because many theories have been developed through laboratory experiments. The following limitations will now be discussed: oversimplification, external validity and conflicting evidence.

Oversimplification

The situation that is investigated through experiments is by definition a reduction and simplification of reality. A laboratory experiment can never encompass the complexity of variables that influence human behavior. In such experiments, often only one of the many variables is investigated.

External validity

Another limitation is that in real life all factors can cover the impact of the variables that are very clearly manipulated in an experiment. This makes it difficult to apply the findings of certain studies to real-life situations.

Conflicting Evidence

Another limitation is that studies often produce conflicting findings. For example, an effect can be found in one study, but it is not found when the study is carried out by someone else at a different time. This is often due to the fact that the studies differ slightly in terms of their methodology. So this shows that when the circumstances are not exactly the same, people can quickly react differently to a similar situation.

The problem phase: how do you get from a problem to a problem definition? - Chapter 2

A problem definition means a clear and precise description of what the problem is, why it is a problem, and for whom it is a problem. The target group must also be defined for the intervention. In addition, the problem definition must provide insight into possible causes and important aspects of the problem. For example, whether the particular problem is an applied, concrete and social psychological problem, and whether the problem can be solved.

Many studies in social psychology pay little attention to formulating the problem. One reason for this is that a lot of research has been done on basic social psychology. For example, within empathy-altruism research, the circumstances under which people are inclined to help others are examined. No further attention is paid here to the application of the findings. In addition, studies where there is an applied focus often lack a systematic problem analysis.

How do you reformulate the problem?

The newspaper always contains headlines that often indicate a problem. However, the disadvantage is that these slogans are often not well formulated. Without a systematic problem analysis, it is often not clear what the problem is. Global propositions must be made more concrete in order to be further investigated. It is also possible that a more detailed problem analysis can discover the real problem instead of the problem that has been formulated. When the problem is clearly articulated, there are a variety of possible solutions. In some cases, this may indicate that a social psychological intervention is not appropriate.

The path from a problem to a problem definition

As the above information shows, there is not one way from the problem to a problem definition. It is important to note that applied social researchers have their own preferences for subjects and theories and therefore approach the problem in their own way. This can cause one researcher to focus on a completely different aspect of the subject than another researcher. It is good to be aware that such tendencies can give a certain color to a problem analysis.

Related to this; a psychologist may be approached by a client with a particular problem. It is then up to the psychologist to determine whether the problem is actually a problem, or whether it is actually another problem. It is therefore the psychologist's job to convince his or her client what the real problem is. If this fails, the psychologist must take his or her hands off the assignment.

During a conversation with the client it is important that there is good questioning to discover the real problem. It is also important to consider how many aspects a problem consists of. It may also be possible that there are several problems. To do this, look for the biggest problem and link the smaller problems to it.

The most relevant questions are:

• What's the problem?
• Why is it a problem?
• Who is it a problem for?
• What are the possible causes of the problem?
• What is the target group (for the intervention)?
• What are the most important (key) aspects of the problem? For example:
  1. Is it an applied problem?
  2. Is it a concrete problem?
  3. Is it a social psychological problem?
  4. Can the problem be solved or alleviated?

A good introductory problem definition is one that incorporates all of the above questions. In a conversation with a client, many more questions are asked to create a complete problem definition.

There are several reasons why it is important to develop a good problem definition. In this way, it delineates what needs to be explained and gives suggestions for finding the correct literature. Based on a good problem definition, it is easier to proceed to the next level, develop and test an explanatory model. In addition, it is almost impossible to develop good interventions without a good problem definition, because the essence of the problem is probably missing.

What are important questions for a problem definition?

What's the problem?

The main issue here is determining the central problem to be solved. To answer this question, insight is needed into the cause and background of the problem. With many problem definitions, it is not always clear what the essence of the problem is. In a conversation with a client, the psychologist should always be critical of what the client is saying and he or she should be open to possible other causes of a particular problem. In addition, problems may often be stated too broadly or generally. In this way, it is not possible to deal with the problem effectively.

Why is it a problem?

This is an important question for the psychologist to ask. How does the problem manifest itself? What are the consequences of the problem? What makes it problematic? When did it first occur? Answering the why question not only helps in specifying the problem, but it can also provide guidance for a possible intervention program.

It can be difficult with what problem the client is facing. It is important to find a fundamental solution. Clients sometimes do not see the actual problem, so if a solution is sought for their problem, it often only works temporarily.

It is also important to ask when exactly the problem arose. In this way, the psychologist can make a historical analysis that can explain various things about the problem. First, it can reveal that the problem suggested is not the actual problem. Second, such an analysis can point to a specific time when the problem occurred. Third, it can give reasons why the problem suddenly got worse.

Who is it a problem for?

It is important to know if only the client is involved in the problem, or if more parties are involved. Usually other parties are involved. It is then important to investigate whether the client's problem definition matches that of the other parties. When these are contradictory, it is difficult for a psychologist to accept the assignment. He or she must then try to formulate a problem definition that everyone can agree with.

What are the possible causes of the problem?

With this question, the psychologist can draw a picture of the background and the possible causes of the problem. In addition, it can be determined whether the problem has a social psychological dimension. If so, this can be used to create a preliminary causal model. Remember, the purpose of creating a problem definition is not to define the exact causes. It is important to get an impression of the causal model and the possible social psychological processes involved. Making a preliminary causal model can be facilitated by asking two questions:

1. What is causing the problem?
2. How do these causes affect the problem?

It is also important to distinguish between direct (immediate) causes and more indirect (distal) causes. In this way a model of the causal process can be made.

What is the target audience?

Who should be convinced of the problem? Whose cooperation is needed to solve the problem? Selecting a target group reduces the number of people involved in the problem.

It explains the problem and makes it more specific. This makes it easier to come up with strategies for the solution. If the psychologist finds out later in the process that the target group is too difficult or expensive, he or she can always redefine the problem. Remember that the PATH model is a flexible model.

What are the main aspects of the problem?

To understand the main aspects of the problem, the following questions should be asked:

1. Is it an applied problem?
2. Is it a concrete problem?
3. Is it a social psychological problem?
4. To what extent can the problem be solved?

Is it an applied problem?

Finding an effective solution to a problem is not the main goal of basic research in psychology, but it is the priority of applied psychological research. It is therefore important that the question "Why is it a problem" also includes a question about how a particular problem can be solved. It is not always clear at the beginning what the intervention program will look like.

Is it a concrete problem?

It is also important that a problem is formulated in enough concrete terms. All important aspects must be well operationalized to be useful. When behavior is operationalized, it is easier to recognize and tackle. It is also good to specify the characteristics of the target group. This makes it easier to evaluate whether an intervention was successful or not. Finally, someone must indicate a specific behavior that needs to be changed. It is necessary to know what the normative behavior of a particular target group is.

Is it a social psychological problem?

This question is answered, at least in part, by the above questions. Here are two questions to consider:

• Are there causes other than social psychological causes, and if so, are they more important than the social psychological factors?
• A second question to ask is what a social psychological perspective contributes to the problem. The primary interest of social psychologists is how individuals behave and respond to their social environment. When problems are mainly economic or technological, a social psychological approach is ineffective.

Can the problem be solved?

The social psychologist must determine whether a particular problem can be solved or not. This depends on the nature of the problem, the efficiency of the solution, but also depends on the client. For example, a client may not agree with a particular intervention program because of the costs. In addition, it must always be checked whether a particular solution is ethically responsible.

How does the research for a problem definition proceed?

The main goal of research at this stage is to better understand the problem and its possible causes, as well as estimate the success of an intervention. In this phase we are not yet concerned with an empirical test of the causal model or an evaluation of the intervention program.

Exploratory research is often desirable for the problem definition because it offers the certainty that the social psychologist will not make mistakes in identifying the causes and / or solutions of the problem.

There are several ways available to gather information about a problem.

Background material

Major social issues are appearing in the newspaper and on television and it may be worth consulting these forms of media. In addition, it is advisable to also consult the internet. It is good to remember that information from the client alone is not enough as it may be incomplete. To gain more insight into a problem, various sources must be consulted.

Scientific literature

It is good to do a "review" of the scientific literature available on a topic so far. For example, PsychINFO, PsychARTICLES or Google SCOLAR can be consulted.

In the problem phase, the main goal is to generate as many ideas as possible about the possible antecedents of the problem, which facilitate the creation of a causal model.

Interviews

It is always good to arrange interviews with the people experiencing the problem. This gives a better picture of how people experience the problem. This helps to define a problem definition that everyone can agree with. These interviews should contain a few elements so that they are actually useful:

1. They should be relatively unstructured so that they can interact freely. There should only be a few basic questions so that the person in question is not sent in any particular direction. This makes for the most objective form of interview.
2. Another feature of interviews is the investigation of differences in perspective on the problem between the parties involved.

Observation

The disadvantage of interviews is that outcomes can differ greatly between people. This may be because some people are not telling the truth. In that case, observation can be used. There are several methods of observation:

1. A more unstructured observation: a small checklist with points to consider for a particular setting.
2. Sometimes it is better if people are not aware of the presence of the psychologist. Hawthorne effect: people behave better when they know they are being observed.

Complete the problem definition

A problem definition usually consists of one paragraph that describes the main elements of the problem in a fluid and coherent manner. All questions are answered here in full, but not as a list. It must be clear what the problem is, why it arose, for whom it is a problem, what the main causes are, the target group and relevant problem aspects.

A problem definition means a clear and precise description of what the problem is, why it is a problem, and for whom it is a problem. The target group must also be defined for the intervention. In addition, the problem definition must provide insight into possible causes and important aspects of the problem. For example, whether the particular problem is an applied, concrete and social psychological problem, and whether the problem can be solved.

Many studies in social psychology pay little attention to formulating the problem. One reason for this is that a lot of research has been done on basic social psychology. For example, within empathy-altruism research, the circumstances under which people are inclined to help others are examined. No further attention is paid here to the application of the findings. In addition, studies where there is an applied focus often lack a systematic problem analysis.

The analysis phase: how do you find theory-based explanations for the problem? - Chapter 3

In this phase, the outcome variable must be defined first, this is the variable that must be changed. After that, as many explanations as possible are found in the divergent phase. These explanations are linked to relevant social psychological theories. Finally, in the convergent phase, the statements are evaluated for their relevance, validity, and probability of the problem.

How do you specify the outcome variable?

The first goal in the analysis phase is to specify the outcome variable to clarify the target behaviour for intervention. Ideally, the outcome variable is formulated in terms of the desired state. The literature distinguishes three different social psychological variables:

1. Behaviours and intentions of behaviour
2. Attitudes and cognitions
3. Emotions and affect

Initially, it is desirable that there is only one outcome variable. This is because variables can be strongly related to each other, so a change in one variable causes a change in the other. When variables are not related, it is because they have a different ontogenetic history. For this they need various explanations and interventions.

What are the requirements for the outcome variable?

To affect a charity, an outcome variable must meet the following criteria:

• It must be relevant to the problem – relevance.
• It must be described in specific and concrete terms – specificity.
• It must be described in continuous terms – continuity.

What is relevance?

The outcome variable should logically arise form the problem definition. In an ideal scenario, it should reflect the desired state.

What is specificity?

In the PATH model, the outcome variable must be described as concretely as possible. This is important because too general an outcome variable makes it difficult to develop an effective intervention program. You then run the risk of influencing aspects of the variable that are not problematic.

What is continuity?

The variable must be continuous so that it can be described in quantitative terms (more or less than…). Firstly, it makes it easier to generate explanations for the problem and to describe the causal model. Secondly, a quantitative variable also makes it easier to evaluate an intervention program. The state before and the state after the intervention are easy to compare.

The divergent phase: how do you generate statements?

The second step in the analysis phase is to find as many explanations as possible and identify relevant causes of the problem. There are a few things to keep in mind here. First, the validity of the statements doesn’t really matter at this point. It is more important to ensure that all aspects of the problem are explained. Second, the social psychologist should focus on explanations for possible differences in the outcome variable.

There are several methods of finding explanations:

• Free association
• Collecting statements through empirical techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations
• One can search in the social psychological literature

What is free association?

With free association, it is important that as many explanations as possible are initially thought up. Subsequently, the validity is examined, and the most favourable explanations are chosen. Moreover, finding an explanation in free association can lead to finding another explanation that logically follows form the first.

Different types of associations are distinguished: problem association, concept association, and taking perspective.

1. Problem association: this is the simplest form of association. The psychologist makes as many explanations for the problem as possible by asking himself: why is it a problem? However, it may only focus on the problem in this way, leaving other possible explanations unanswered. That is why it is good to look for explanations with a conceptual and more abstract approach.
2. Concept association: another way to find explanations is to look beyond the problem and come up with phenomena that are conceptually similar to the problem. By using concepts, the psychologist can translate the problem into a more abstract and scientific problem.
3. Taking perspective: looking from perspective sees the problem through the eyes of the people involved in the problem. First, the individuals involved must be identified and then the psychologist must put herself in his or her shoes.

What are interviews and observations?

Interviews and observations are also useful during the analysis phase. However, they are more specific in this phase, because they arise from the chosen outcome variable(s).

A specific interview method to find explanations is the “why interview”. This can be a real interview with the parties involved, but it can also be an exercise for the psychologist to come up with different explanations for himself. These interviews are more detailed than the interviews discussed in the problem phase. In these conversations, care must be taken to ensure that the questions are not always asked in the same way.

The explanatory model can be presented in a figure:

• Affirmative action policies
• Expectation that female managers are not competent
• Lack of authority among female managers
• Lack of support for female managers from top management
• Lack of interest among women in management positions

This means that you go back on the causal chain, bottom-up, from the outcome variable to a possible obstacle. This model is not yet complete and can still raise many “why questions”. It is good to be complete and not focus on one set of statements. Focusing on the most relevant explanations does not take place until the convergent phase.

In the analysis phase, a more systematic observation is used than in the problem phase. A distinction can be made between observation of others and self-observation (introspection). In the case of an observation, the social psychologist observes a process in a group or organization. The SYMLOG, a group observation tool, can be used. The SYMLOG tool consists of 26 attributes that are given to each group member. For example: active, dominant, talks a lot. The psychologist must score the person per item on a three-point scale: 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often. These scores are then combined for each group member on three dimensions: dominant-submissive, friendly-unfriendly, and instrumentally controlled=emotionally expressive. With this data a graphical representation of the group is given.

In introspective methods, group members may be asked to judge themselves and how they respond to others.

What are social psychological theories?

A third method for finding explanations is through social psychological literature. Social psychological theories, usually based on a large number of studies, specify the possible causes of social behavior, such as aggression, altruism, leadership, status, conformity, and prejudice. Th two methods of explanation generation, taking association and perspective, often give an idea of which theories are relevant and which are not. Remember than in the analysis phase, these theories are mainly used as a heuristic to make a causal explanatory model. In the following phase of the PATH model, the test phase, the theories are examined more thoroughly.

There are three different strategies for finding explanations from social psychological literature:

1. The thematic (topical) strategy: this approach finds out what has been written in the literature on a particular topic. In many cases, there are studies within the psychological literature that are directly related to the problem.
2. Conceptual strategy: this approach reformulates the problem on a more conceptual level to find links with relevant social psychological phenomena and theories.
3. General theory strategy: the thematic and conceptual strategies are inductive in that they are bottom-up, from problem to explanation. The general theory strategy is deductive. It moves top-down, from a general theory that at first glance doesn’t seem very relevant to the problem. However, they have a wide range of implications across a wide range of problems. For example, it is good to use this strategy for a relatively new problem.

The convergent phase: how do you reduce the number of statements?

In the convergent phase, the number of explanations is reduced, so that only the most plausible explanations remain. There are three different steps in this phase.

1. First, reduce the number of statements by getting rid of the irrelevant and redundant statements.
2. During the second step, the theoretical validity of each statement is checked.
3. As a third step, the remaining statements are checked to see if they are responsible for the problem.

In this phase, the outcome variable must be defined first, this is the variable that must be changed. After that, as many explanations as possible are found in the divergent phase. These explanations are linked to relevant social psychological theories. Finally, in the convergent phase, the statements are evaluated for their relevance, validity, and probability of the problem.

The test phase: how do you develop and test the process model? - Chapter 4

When social psychologists choose a set of explanations, they create process model. This model serves as a template for developing interventions.

How do you formulate a process model?

A process model is an illustrated representation of the explanatory variables and their relationships with each other and with the overarching problem. Each variable is represented by a square. The squares (variables) in the model are connected by arrows. The binding power of an arrow indicates whether there is a positive (+) or negative (-) relationship between the two variables. Formulating a process model helps social psychologists to paint a structured picture of the problem with the underlying causes. It should also provide guidance on which interventions to use.

How do you develop a process model?

First, there must be a clear outcome variable. Ideally, this has already been done in the previous phase of the PATH method, but there may be doubts as to whether the outcome variable is concrete enough or not. Subsequently, a diagram must be made of the preparatory process model. The outcome variable is placed in the right square and the possible explanations in the left square.

Possible explanation of outcome variable:

• Nature of the task cooperation

This is a plausible first model, but there are several problems. First, the statement is not usually described as a continuous or quantitative variable. It is unclear how this variable can vary from less to more, and how exactly it is related to the outcome variable. Second, the variables are often too general. An improved model would use more concrete terms to describe the variables. In the figure below, the above variables are made concrete and relationships are specified.

• Competition among scientists –
• Willingness to help each other
• Degree of task coordination
• Extent of shared group product

This model is already a great improvement over the first, but details of the process that led to the manifestation of the problem are still lacking. For example, it is not clear whether the variables on the left have a direct or indirect influence on the problem. Additionally, the variables introduced in the second figure can be caused by other factors. An even better process model would look like this:

• Degree to which – competition among cooperation scientists is rewarded =
• Degree of task + degree of + cohesion in + willingness to coordination communication in teams to help each other + + +
• Degree of sharing Extent of shared Responsibility for lab space + group product + group product.

This is one possible way to develop a process model, but it is by no means the only way. In general, it takes a lot of time and adjustments to make one as accurate as possible. It is worthwhile to invest a lot of time here, because a good process model provides good recommendations about the nature of the interventions that are needed.

What heuristics are there for developing a process model?

While there is no one way to create a process model, there are several heuristics that can help. The following 11 rules of thumb can help you develop a process model:

1. List the possible statements and variables.
2. Make sure that all variables are socio-psychological, specific, concrete, and continuous, rather than general, abstract, and binary.
3. Make sure that these variables influence behaviour, attitudes, and motivations.
4. Draw the outcome variable on the right side of the process mode.
5. Move from the right to left in the model by asking yourself which variables influence the outcome variable.
6. Draw arrows between these variables to indicate the direction of the relationship.
7. Make sure the relationship between the variables is not too far-fetched. Other, provide an extra variable in between.
8. When coming up with new variables, consider whether they have direct, indirect, reinforcing, or mitigating effects.
9. If there are several variables that affect the outcome variable, they should be worked out in detail and whether they are interrelated. If so, an arrow should be drawn.
10. In practice, a process model may not contain more than ten variables to be usable. In addition, a good balance must be found between a concise, but detailed model.
11. In order to develop a practical model, there should not be too many steps between the outcome variables and the most distant variables. It is recommended to use four steps.

How do you test the process model?

When choosing the right theory or set of theories, the social psychologist probably already knows the empirical background. For example, the empirical literature indicates the strength and direction of the relationships between the variables in the model. Meta-analyses and review articles are very useful because they summarize the results of the different studies. Based on this, the correlations between the variables can be established in the process model (the research must therefore also investigate the direction of the relationship). Studies can contradict each other. In the method part of the research, it must then be examined which research most closely matches the situation for which the process model is being made.

It can be difficult to find relevant literature that provides evidence for the relationships between different variables. Firstly, this is because not all research is published. Second, not all studies are of the same relevance and quality. Third, studies can contradict each other in their results or conclusions. For this it is best to consult meta-analyses or review articles.

How can you do your own research?

as indicated earlier, it is possible that no research has yet been conducted into a relationship between variables. It is also possible that a study is of poor quality or does not fully cover what knowledge is needed. In this case, the social psychologist must be able to conduct his own research to find out this relationship. In addition, many studies in social psychology are “laboratory based”. This means that these results are reliable, but not usually easy to generalize. When conducting research to establish validity, it can be helpful to conduct a quick survey (questionnaire). The most important variables are operationalized and measured, after which they undergo statistical procedures. In this way, the relationship between the variables is established.

When social psychologists choose a set of explanations, they create process model. This model serves as a template for developing interventions.

The help phase: how do you develop an intervention? - Chapter 5

When all factors causing the outcome variables have been identified, an intervention can be performed. An intervention is used to change the causal factors and thus manage the outcome variable. However, it is sometimes not necessary to change all causal factors, so the first step in the help phase is to determine which factors to change. The adaptability of the factors and the effect size of the intervention determine this choice. It must then be determined how the target group will be reached and what the content of the intervention will be. The content of the intervention is mainly based on empirical evidence. The last step in the help phase is the implementation process. This chapter only provides an introduction to developing an intervention.

How do you prepare an intervention development?

As described above, it is not always necessary, appropriate or possible to adjust all factors in the explanatory model. Therefore, the social psychologist chooses the factors that are modifiable and have the greatest effect on the outcome variable. For this it is useful to balance all factors of the process model.

Adaptability

There are three questions that can help rule out factors that are difficult to change:

1. Is the factor a stable personality trait?
2. Is the factor related to deep-seated political or religious values?
3. Is the factor related to a stable environmental situation?

Effect size

To determine which variables have the greatest effect on the outcome variable, the socio-psychological literature should be consulted. If no information can be found in this literature, there are several ways to estimate the effect size. This makes it possible to look at past experiences with comparable situations.

The balance sheet

A balance sheet helps determine which factors will be used for the intervention. A psychologist will evaluate all variables from the process model for their adaptability and effect size. It looks like this:

Variables form the process model Modifiability Effect Size

1. Perceived negative outcomes of child being overweight ++ +
2. Knowledge on weight reducing parental behaviors + ++
3. Perceived positive outcomes of weight reducing parental behaviors ++ +
4. Perceived control over child’s behavior + ++
5. Experience with structured parenting 0 +

Note: With regard to modifiability: ++ = high modifiable; + = medium modifiable; 0 = low modifiable; - = not modifiable; +/0 = depends on another variable.

With regard to the effect size: ++ = large effect; + = moderate effect; 0 = small effect; - = no effect; +/0 = depends on another variable.

Using this table, the psychologist can determine which factors need to be changed to change the outcome variable.

How do you develop the intervention?

Three tasks can be distinguished when developing an intervention:

1. Choosing the right channel: for example, how the target group is reached.
2. Selecting the right methods: how does the change take place, for example.
3. Development of the strategies: translating the methods into concrete aspects of the intervention.

The channel, methods and strategy must always take the target audience into account. It is good to remember that developing an intervention is a dynamic process: choices for the channel, the methods and the strategy are always made in combination with each other.

The channel

The channel is the means by which people are reached and the intended change sonly take place when people are exposed to this channel. Examples are: flyers, magazines internet, television, group training and structural environmental changes.

The channel is chosen based on information about the target audience, the relevant variables, methods and strategies. The following issues should be considered when choosing a channel:

1. Is the channel an effective way to reach the target audience?
2. Is exposure through this channel intensive enough to change the variable?
3. Is the channel appropriate for the method and strategy?
4. What is the impact on population level of the intervention when using this channel? The impact is determined by the effectiveness: the percentage of people whop participate in the intervention. The impact of an intervention can be calculated by multiplying the effectiveness by the participation rate of the intervention.

The method

Methods often arise form theoretical frameworks. The choice of a method depends on the balance model. An intervention method must be chosen for each variable. In addition, it depends to what extent the method fits the variable to be changed. Some channels can motivate people by showing the desired behaviour, but they cannot teach them how to change their behaviour.

The following methods are commonly used in psychological interventions:

• Setting goals: setting concrete and specific goals is important. Goals direct people’s attention and effort, give them expectations, and give them the opportunity for feedback on the achievement of the goal, thus regulating motivation. Goal setting changes behaviour by defining goals that people must achieve over a period of time.
• Fear communication: can be effective to encourage certain behaviours. In this way it shows the adverse consequences of the behaviour that is not desired. It is only effective (and ethically responsible) when these adverse consequences are accompanied by explicit guidelines on how to prevent these consequences.
• Modeling: refers to learning through observation of others. Watching how others behave and the consequences of this can teach people to adopt a new behaviour.
• Enactive learning: the most effective way of learning a skill is to achieve it yourself. In interventions, people can be stimulated to exercise a certain skill and to evaluate it.
• Social comparison: information about how other people are doing can influence a person’s mood and well-being.
• Implementation intentions: intentions to perform a certain action in a specified situation. People may be asked to determine their intentions for themselves by achieving a goal.
• Punishment and reward: in general, people repeat behaviour that is the result of a positive experience (reward) and avoid a negative experience (punishment). Punishment for undesirable behaviour works best when accompanied by reward for desired behaviour.
• Feedback: is essential in achieving changes in behaviour. People need to know how far they have achieved their goal to stay motivated.

The strategy

Methods must be translated into a specific strategy. The strategy is the actual intervention people are exposed to. To devise strategies, a global intervention plan can be drawn up by specifying the methods, channels, target groups and variables that need to be changed. Then the strategy is determined. This usually happens in two phases: the divergent and a convergent phase. In the divergent phase, the psychologist makes as many strategies as possible, and in the convergent phase, all of these strategies are critically assessed.

There are several ways to generate interventions:

• Direct intervention association: ideas for strategies can be based on many different sources, such as what someone sees on television, what seems logical, what appears to be effective in literature, or what people have experienced themselves.
• Direct method approach: this approach consists of looking at strategies used in equivalent situations.
• Weak strategies: this approach is to devise strategies that have an unwanted effect on the problem. By knowing what is not wanted, you can find what is actually desired.
• Interviews: interviewing people of the target group can generate ideas for new strategies.
• Insight form theory: this approach consists of looking at relevant social psychological theories.
• Insight form research: this approach consists of looking at relevant social psychological research.

The divergent phase often results in a laundry list of strategies. The choice of a particular strategy or set of strategies must be made on a theoretical and empirical basis. First, the strategy must take into account the preconditions of the theory (for example, relevant to the target group). Second, it is desirable that the chosen strategy be based on empirical evidence from laboratory experiments or field studies. Ideally, evidence should e available for the combination of the channel, method, strategy, variable to be changed, and target audience.

Sometimes there is no evidence for the effectiveness of a particular strategy. Certainly, if the costs of an intervention program are high, it is recommended to first investigate its effectiveness.

How do you build the intervention program?

Once the strategy(s) has been chosen, the interventions can take shape. When it comes to visuals, this is often done in collaboration with a professional graphic designer. Here are a few rules of thumb for making material:

1. Be as specific as possible in the provision of information.
2. When different channels are used for the intervention, everything must be aligned with the protocol and planning of the intervention.
3. When professional artists are involved, clear agreements must be made to what extent they have freedom in shaping the material.
4. It is important that all aspects of the material are aligned with the strategy, so that it is clear to everyone what this strategy is.

Pre-testing the intervention

The main purpose of this is to avoid major design flaws. It doesn’t necessarily have to include a behavioural measurement. It must ensure that the target audience pays attention to and understands the message. The format of a pre-test is to expose the material to the target audience and to record and evaluate their answers. This can be done in various ways.

1. Interview. This is a free way of asking questions of the target audience.
2. Quantitative assessment. People of the target group answer closed questions about the intervention in a questionnaire.
3. Reminder. A reminder task can be sued that looks at which aspects of the intervention have been remembered by people of the target group. This can provide insight into which strategies are most striking.
4. Observation. People of the target group can be observed when they are exposed to the intervention.
5. Expert opinions. You may be asked whether the experts involved can describe the effects of the intervention.

How do you implement the intervention?

The implementation process has one important goal: to verify that the intervention is being used as intended. Implementation is not about the effects of the intervention, but about positioning the women in such a way that it can have effects. The major challenge of the implementation process is that the extent to which the target group is exposed to the intervention depends on the people and organizations involved in the distribution of the intervention. So while psychologists can create a perfect intervention program, it is highly dependent on the people who need to expose the interventions to the target audience. If this is not or hardly ever done, the effects will be very small or even non-existent.

The implementation process

The implementation process can be time consuming as communication and information exchange can take a long time. Rogers’ (1983) “Model of Diffusion of Innovation” describes how large-scale changes in the use of an innovation occur over time. This process is known as the diffusion process. The process consists of four stages, which are descried using a sample flyer for battered women to get professional help.

1. Dissemination phase: the GP becomes aware of the flyer and discusses it with his colleagues.
2. Adoption phase: the GP becomes motivated to use the innovation and distributes the flyer to patients who may be victims of domestic violence.
3. Implementation phase: the GP actually takes part in the behaviour to expose the target group to the intervention: he hands out the flyer to the right patients.
4. Continuation phase: handing out the flyer becomes a habit.

Recording the implementation route

In the implementation process, all persons and organizations involved, their motivations and thresholds for carrying out their task in the implementation are recorded. Creating an implementation process consists of three steps:

1. Capture the actors. The route shows the actors in the relevant networks in which they communicate and the meaning of their communication.
2. Determining the motivations and stumbling blocks for actors. The route shows possible problems and stumbling blocks for the actors to perform certain tasks.
3. Identify relevant policy making. It must be known which policy is followed within a company and which laws there are. In this way it can be ensured that they are not violated.

The implementation plan

The implementation plan includes al steps to be taken to encourage the actors to carry out their tasks in the implementation. When developing an implementation plan, the social psychologist must consider two factors:

1. Implementation goals: goals should be set so that each actor has a positive attitude towards the implementation or sees their role within the implementation as part of their job.
2. Action plans: these plans indicate exactly how the gals can be achieved.

The actual implementation

This phase takes a lot of work. All involved (actors) must be approached to ensure that they are doing their part to achieve the goal. This can be by motivating them or by removing potential stumbling blocks.

The evaluation

In order to determine whether the identified problem as actually changed positively, an evaluation must take place at the end of the intervention cycle. At least three types of evaluation are important:

1. Effect evaluation: it is evaluated to what extent the variables directly related to the problem have changed. In any case, the effect of the intervention on the specified outcome variable must be evaluated.
2. Process evaluation: consists of primary process evaluation and secondary process evaluation. The primary process evaluation involves determining the changes in the variables responsible for the changes in the outcome variable. The secondary process evaluation refers to a determination of the extent to which effective elements of the intervention have actually been implemented.
3. Cost-effectiveness evaluation: here it is determined whether the costs outweigh the effect of the intervention.

When all factors causing the outcome variables have been identified, an intervention can be performed. An intervention is used to change the causal factors and thus manage the outcome variable. However, it is sometimes not necessary to change all causal factors, so the first step in the help phase is to determine which factors to change. The adaptability of the factors and the effect size of the intervention determine this choice. It must then be determined how the target group will be reached and what the content of the intervention will be. The content of the intervention is mainly based on empirical evidence. The last step in the help phase is the implementation process. This chapter only provides an introduction to developing an intervention.