Introduction to Work in the 21st century: An introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology - Chapter 1

1.1 Industrial and Organizational Psychology

The Importance of Work

Because people spend most of their weekdays and some of their weekends engaged in, or thinking about, work, it is important to research. Even if a job sucks, most people would rather continue working than be unemployed or retire, even if financially taken care of.

Good Work

Gardner characterizes good work as that which requires high expertise and makes a regular impact and application to the world. Cutting corners can lead to compromised work, which undermines the values of a trade or profession. Essentially, it's cheating. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (I-O Psychology) is the study of the work as it is experienced, the thoughts and behaviours associated with working.

I-O Psychology and Society

Definition

I-O psychology is the application of psychological principles, theories, and research directed towards the work setting. This includes work behaviour, both in and out of the workplace, as well as the influence the work experience has on the rest of life, like family, health, and relationships. I-O psychology can be divided into three major areas:

1. Personnel psychology: related to the hiring, firing, evaluation, training and performance of employees.

2. Organizational psychology: address emotions, motivation, and interpersonal behaviour in the context of social psychology and the organization.

3. Human engineering (human factors psychology): looking at the human capacity and limitations in any given environment, towards improving the working environment for people.

A more formal definition of I-O psychology, approached from the perspective of the I-O psychologist and what he or she does, has been adopted by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

Industrial-Organizational Psychologists recognize the interdependence of individuals, organizations and society and they recognize the impact of factors such as increasing governmental influences, growing consumer awareness, skill shortages, and the changing nature of the workforce.

Things to Consider

The world of work has changed greatly since the 1980’s in a number of ways. Things have been digitized and computerized, allowing work to change – we spend much of our time in front of computers, and some of us even telecommute (work from home). Meetings can be done via videoconferencing. Work performance can be more closely monitored by digital means. More work is team-based, and most jobs are service-oriented.

Most sectors of business are unstable, and workers expect more recognition for their efforts. Workplaces are increasingly diverse. The nature of work is more fluid, and a good deal of work is conducted internationally.

Understanding the Young Worker

A large population of the workforce are young, part-time workers. The “first job” can be seen as either the first full-time position after education is complete, or as the first paying job outside of the home. The choice of what to consider a “first job” can change the sample demographic by many years of age. What has been found about young workers is that they tend to find jobs that involve acquiring new skills and using current skills to be the most satisfying. If in an under-skilled or non-challenging environment, they may develop a disinterest in the work. Young workers tend to be technologically sophisticated and are often valuably open-minded in an expanding workplace. Entry-level positions often consist of menial activities, but with the skills that many beginning workers now have, this could lead to unnecessary demotivation and a negative outlook on work.

Working alongside school can be detrimental if the type of work is long, poorly scheduled, and unrelated to the main trajectory of study. Work that uses skills learned in the study itself, however, has been found to be beneficial to learning.

1.2 Past, Present, and Future

The History of I-O Psychology

1876-1930

Wundt, Munsterberg, and Cattell

Wilhelm Wundt, after beginning his psychological laboratory in 1876, had within 10 years established a popular educational training program and was well underway in his efforts to establish psychology as a science. Hugo Munsterberg, who studied under Wundt, went to Germany and was among the first to measure worker’s abilities to perform and analyzed the results with the beginnings of what would develop into today’s statistical practices. He made the first I-O psychology textbook. Cattell was a contemporary to Munsterberg, living and working in America. He worked to find general laws of behavior, at first ignoring the “errors” of individual differences, then realizing that these errors were key to understanding behavior.

Scott and Bingham

Walter Dill Scott and Walter Van Dyke Bingham (the two “Walters”) were, at this time, working at the Carnegie Institute to develop training and selection methods for sales personnel. They helped test and place army recruits and adapted the Stanford-Binet intelligence test to be suitable for group testing, in a test called the Army Alpha.

Gilbreth and Hollinworth

The first graduate of I-O psychology was Lillian Gilbreth, who applied Taylor’s principles of Scientific Management to educational institutions. She and her husband became famous for their practice of human engineering, managing people to the minutest detail of their behavior. They used stopwatches to cut behavior down into its parts and train people to be more efficient with the smallest motions.

Harry Hollingworth was an early applied psychologist who, in 1911, defended the caffeine content of CocaCola as a substance that increases mental efficiency and performance rather than decreasing it. He was quickly asked to test a number of other things for business who wanted the help of a consultant.

1930-1964

Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo began studying the emotions of workers in 1924, especially those that caused pathological tendencies like revery obsession, resulting from repetitive and difficult work. He suggested that in these physically demanding but mentally empty tasks, the workers mind would wander to paranoid thoughts and disobedience. When appointed to Harvard, a series of studies were being undertaken called the Hawthorne studies, which involved changing elements of the environment, break times, and other such things in attempts to increase productivity. Mayo discoveredthat the emotions of the workers actually played a role in their behavior, and the mere fact of being watched and measures had a significant impact on their behavior. This eventually became known as the Hawthorne Effect.

Human Relations Movement

These studies ledto the Human Relations Movement. Motivation and emotion became more important in I-O psychology. Many of Mayo’s efforts became about increasing productivity and counseling the workers in ways that would achieve this. Arthur Kornhauser, on the other hand, applied his research to the betterment of the situation of the worker rather than the management.

World War II

World War II saw the invention of far more advanced and complicated technology than was known in World War I, especially in the air force. More complicated aircraft (and many different types) meant that pilots had to be able to quickly understand the cockpit controls of new planes – failing to understand could lead to death. Applied psychologists helped standardize the controls so that they could easily be recognized, and the accidents were reduced. This and many other applied psychological projects paved the way for later developments. After the war, for instance, there was an increase in labour unrest that prompted psychological research on how personality, interests, and attitudes affect working motivation and satisfaction.

1964 to the Modern Era

After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, employment discrimination was dealt with in such a way that tests used for personnel selection had to be justified. The period following this time involved a shift of thinking and the adoption of the new name, paying more attention to the individual perspective and to job satisfaction, but within the larger social system. Major changes include:

• Mental ability tests are no longer the focus but are only one of the important measures used – personality is increasingly considered.

• Productivity and efficiency are still addressed, but the well-being, social life, and behavior of the workers is now more important.

• I-O psychologists take a systems view, seeing work behavior as a component in a number of overall life variables.

• Not just the worker, but also the work group, the organization, and the culture can be subjects of study.

I-O Psychology Demographics

The APA (American Psychological Association) was founded in 1892. Since then, there have been demographic shifts – there are now more women and more people of diverse origins in the field. Salary, employment setting, field of focus, and a number of other factors also differ greatly between individual psychologists. The term I-O psychologist is used in the United States, but in other places terms like organizational psychologist, work psychologist, and applied psychologist are used.

1.3 Cross-Cultural and Multicultural Issues

Multicultural Differences

A culture is a system within which individuals share common ways of viewing events and objects. There are very many different cultures, so, of course, these all end up giving different results in psychological research. Work plays a different role in people’s lives depending on the culture in which they live – what people earn and why, work ethic, management practices, attitudes towards unemployment… all of these things can vary. Since this is the case, and since many workplaces are multicultural, it is important to know where and how cultures interact with one another.

Cross-National Issues

There has been an increase in the prevalence of trans-national corporations and general global connections between businesses. There is a global economy. As such, a person working in a major company will often find themselves in contact with people living and working in other parts of the world, either in-person or through tele-communications. The importance of understanding differences and being able to work with diverse cultures is increasing. Organizations need to develop training programs, regulations, and motivational activities that can apply to a more diverse group than ever before. Individual differences are caused by many factors, one of which is culture.

Multiculturalism and I-O Psychology

Western researchers tend to develop their theories to relate only to Western cultures, probably because it’s just easier. Many of the results of their research cannot be generalized to non-Western cultures, and neither can the treatments developed to deal with psychological issues.

Since the definitions of psychology tend to include phrases that imply it relates to all of human behavior, there can be an implied discrimination in maintaining this one-size-fits-all mentality. There is another problem: expatriates, people from one country who work in a location outside of their homeland. Some of these people fail to adapt to the culture of their new location, making the selection of workers who will become expatriates a matter of particular interest.

Theories of Cultural Influence

Individualism and Collectivism

One way to conceptualize cultural differences is to understand them according to the underlying values of collectivism (the group is more important than the individual) and individualism (the individual is more important than the group). Looking at cultures according to where they fit on this continuum can help managers develop customized methods.

Hofstede’s Theory

Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede identified five basic dimensions, including individualism-collectivism, upon which cultures differ, making up the collective psyche of a culture. Hofstede has since refined his theory to apply to the workplace, describing characteristic work behaviours associated with the different dimensions. His dimensions are:

• Individualism-collectivism

• Power distance: the degree to which people accept inequalities between those in power and those below them.

• Uncertainty avoidance: The extent to which people feel uncomfortable with uncertainty.

• Masculinity-femininity: The distribution of emotional roles between genders (men=tough, women=tender), either valuing accomplishment and technical skill or relationships and communication.

• Long-term vs. short-term orientation: The degree to which people delay gratification of their material, emotional, and social needs.

Horizontal and Vertical Cultures

Triandus suggested that another dimension actually interacts with the collectivist-individualist dimension: horizontal cultures vs. vertical cultures. Horizontal cultures seek to minimize distances between people while vertical cultures accept and depend on distances.

Cultural variables are one of many influences on work behavior.

What is science? - Chapter 2

2.1 What is Science?

Science is a process of investigation aimed at developing understanding, the ability to predict, and some degree of control over the subject of study. Investigation often involves the development of a hypothesis, experimentation and research aimed at disproving the hypothesis, the collection and analysis of data, and the open communication of the results and process to the scientific community. Most important in science is that scientists maintain a level of disinterestedness, removing as much bias as possible that could impact their interpretations. I-O psychology is a science.

Science in Society

A number of checks and balances are in place, governing how scientific research is conducted. Ethics committees and peer review ensure the quality and ethical adherence of studies. Qualifications must be met for a person to be considered a scientist in their field, and to be able to act as an expert witness, a person must fulfill the criteria of expertise in their field.

I-O Psychological Research

Theories are either helpful or unhelpful, not necessarily right or wrong. Helpful theories offer new insights, are relevant to important topics, provide explanations, are practical, focused, and interesting.

2.2 Research

Designing Research

When an applied topic is selected, an important issue to address is which research method to use. Many approaches exist, but there is rarely a single “right” decision. Each has advantages and disadvantages, and most choices involve some sort of trade-off. The most common trade-offs are represented as the “three-horned-dilemma”. There are three desirable qualities of a method: precision, generalizability to situations, and generalizability to people. Any attempt to maximize one of these qualities leads to the other two being compromised. Because it is impossible to create a perfect study, it is often best to use multiple studies in a research.

True Experiments

A true experiment tests the causal relationship between two or more variables using either manipulation or random assignment. Manipulation is the systematic tampering with one variable to observe the effects this may have on the other variables. The manipulated variable is the potential cause, and is usually called the independent variable, while the outcome variable is called the dependent variable. Random assignment ensures that every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the experiment. This is essential because it allows for a rough estimate of group equality.

Advantages

True experiments are the most precise. They eliminate confounding variables so as to increase the clarity of the causal relationship. There are person confounds and procedural confounds. Person confounds occur when the presence of an individual difference influences outcome. Random assignment controls for this. Procedural confounds occur when the experimenter unwittingly manipulates two or more variables at once. This can usually be avoided with careful control of the experimental situation. Laboratory experiments have the advantage of diminishing noise, the variables that can influence a dependent variable but that remain consistent over different situations.

Precision and Statistics

True experiments allow researchers to study statistical interactions, which indicate that the effect an independent variable has on the dependent variable depends on another independent variable. For this, the 2x2 factorial design is a common study method in addressing social behavior. In this design, the researcher looks at the independent and combined effects of two independent variables that each have two levels. Statistical interactions are useful for more complex, conceptually related interactions. They are also useful because they identify the boundary conditions of a theory. This improves the applicability of the theory.

Disadvantages

True experiments are typically low in their ability to generalize to other people and to generalize to other situations. The generalizability to people is limited by the fact that experimenters generally use samples from homogeneous populations (like university students) for both convenience reasons and to eliminate the noise that comes with a heterogeneous population. Furthermore, in the effort to remove noise, experimenters tend to conduct their research in sterile, unnatural environments. This makes it difficult to generalize results to real-world situations.

Minimizing Disadvantages

The reliance on convenience samples and contrived situations may limit the researcher, but there are still options available to reduce the disadvantages of true experiments. Of course, the challenge is that the researcher can rarely find a representative applied situation that will allow for effective generalization. In regard to generalizing to other people, researchers can sometimes conduct experiments in applied settings, or expand the sample list. While in individual studies they may need to keep the sample homogeneous, they might choose to conduct a series of studies with different homogeneous populations.

Realism

The general concern for generalizability comes from a desire for studies to yield realistic results. Studies high in mundane realism involve a setting similar to the real-world setting of the phenomenon being studied. The problem with this is that the research questions tend to be highly specific. A different type of realism is experimental or psychological realism. This is when a study situation might not seem like a real one, but feels like a real one. This involves inspiring the same emotions and psychological states as a real situation might inspire, without mimicking a real situation.

Correlational Research

Correlational research is used to investigate the relationship between different measured variables in natural situations. The researcher generates a fixed set of observations about a group of people. This approach does not manipulate variables – the researcher merely assesses and measures variables of interest as they naturally occur. To determine a correlation, the collected data must be statistically analyzed for a relationship that is either consistent or inconsistent with the hypothesis, usually computing a correlation coefficient. This ranges from -1 to +1 and indicates the magnitude and direction of the correlation. A positive correlation is when one variable increases and the other one also increases. The opposite occurs in a negative correlation. It is important not to confuse correlational research with correlational statistics.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Correlational research maximizes generalizability to situations. This is because the observed behaviors occur in natural settings, increasing the chances that results are representative. They can also act as a useful follow-up to test the generalizability of an experimental research to the real world. It is especially useful when researching unmanipulatable variables, like gender, personality, or ethically troublesome variables like reactions to stress and danger.

The primary limitation of correlational research is that correlation does not equal causation. One cannot infer the cause of one variable on the basis of a correlational relationship. One issue is reverse causality – the causal relationship might be the inverse of what is expected (violent video games might not cause aggression; they might only be played by naturally aggressive kids). Another issue is the third variable problem – there might be a separate variable causing both of the observed variables. While high in generalizability to other situations, correlational studies are low in generalization to other people. Studies still rely on convenience sampling. There is still a pressure to use a homogeneous sample and this also decreases generalizability.

Minimizing Disadvantages

The most common method of correcting for third-variable problems is to use covariates. This involves studying the effects of other plausible variables that may act as a third variable. While this cannot guarantee that the results are conclusive, nor establish causation, it still goes a long way to validating the results. It is also never possible to guess every possible third variable. In order to correct for the issue of reverse causality, researchers may pair the study with other research designs, such as a longitudinal study. This can control for prior levels of outcome, providing insurance against reverse causality. This is, however, limited. Another option is retrospective self-report.

Quasi-experiments

Quasi-experiments are something of a compromise between precision and generalizability to situations. Researchers only have partial control over independent variables. Random assignment is impossible as participants are placed into groups based on another naturally occurring criterion. Dependent variables and extraneous variables can be controlled. While there are many types of quasi-experimental designs, the most common is the person-by-treatment quasi-experiment. An independent variable (or treatment variable) is manipulated and the person variable is measured. This allows researchers in applied social psychology to examine how different people react to the same treatment. While they have less control than experiments, quasi-experiments can be more precise with the use of statistical covariates.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Quasi-experimental designs offer a compromise between strict experiments and loose correlational studies. A quasi-experiment lends itself to natural measures and can be used to measure real-world behaviors that would be unethical to replicate in a lab.

Quasi-experiments often include the shortcomings of correlational and experimental designs. Generalizability to people is also limited for the same reasons that it is limited in the other two designs.

Survey Research

Survey research addresses the need to generalize results to a particular population of people. Of course, to generalize from a sample to a population, one must have a representative sample. Survey research is the process of collecting information from a sample of people, selected for their ability to represent a larger population. This is different from a questionnaire in that a survey uses representative sampling. To ensure that a sample is representative, researchers may use random sampling within a particular population. This is often limited, however, by logistical problems. Another method is cluster sampling, which first randomly selects locations, then people within the locations (random U.S. high schools, with a random sample of students from each one). The error associated with a sample estimate is called sampling error. This is usually the discrepancy between the results of a representative sample and the results the full population would provide.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Surveys are very effective ways of representing information about a large population, and as such, they are often used by politicians and governments, as well as by applied social scientists. They are flexible and efficient.

As with the other research designs, survey design is unable to fulfill the three “horns” of research; while it can be generalized to people, it cannot be generalized to situations nor is it precise. It is costly in time and expense, and often requires the use of complex procedures. The questionnaires must be short and cannot go into much detail, so they are often used just for descriptive purposes. It is best to pair the survey’s sampling procedure with a true experimental or a correlational design. Survey research itself, however, tends to stand on its own.

Programmatic Research

Researchers concerned with understanding the full nature of an applied problem typically engage in multi-method research, involving a number of studies that use different methods in order to form a more accurate picture of the problem at hand. No single study can answer all questions, and applied researchers must organize research programs that utilize the best of each method and correct for the worst.

Ethical Behavior in I-O Psychology

I-O psychologists share a code of ethics with the APA, though the SIOP (a governing body in the field of I-O psychology) endorses 61 cases that illustrate the ethical issues relevant to I-O psychologists in particular. They put out a book that addresses topics like testing, validity studies, layoffs, result reporting, sexual harassment, employee assistance programs, confidentiality, data collection, and billing. The ethical dilemmas that face I-O psychologists are increasingly complex as the economy shifts and new technologies and practices enter the field.

2.3: Data analysis

The statistical methods to accomplish such a description are referred to as descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics are statistics that summarize, organize and describe a sample of data.

Three measures of characteristics can be used to describe any score distribution:

• Measure of central tendency: statistic that indicates where the center of a distribution is located.

• Variability: the extent to which scores in a distribution vary.

• Skew: the extent to which scores in a distribution are lopsided or tend to fall on the left or right side of the distribution.

Measures of central tendency include: The mean, the mode, the median.

The mean is the arithmetic average of the scores, the mode is the most frequently occurring score, and the median is the middle score in a distribution.

Inferential statistics: Statistics used to aid the researcher in testing hypotheses and making inferences from sample data to a larger sample or population.

Examples are the t test, analysis of variance or the F test, or chi-square test can be used to see whether two or more groups of participants tend to differ on some variable of interest.

Statistical significance indicates that the probability of the observed statistic is less than the stated significance level adopted by the researcher (commonly p<.05). A statistically significant finding indicates that the results found are unlikely to have occurred by chance and thus the null hypothesis.

The concept of statistical power deals with the likelihood of finding a statistically significant difference when a true difference exists.

Correlation and Regression

Through the process of measurement, we can assign numbers to individuals. These numbers represent the person’s standing on a variable of interest.

Correlation coefficient is the statistic or measure of association that most commonly is used. It is a statistic assessing the bivariate, linear association between two variables. It provides information about both the magnitude and the direction of the relationship between two variables.

The concept of correlation: the best way to appreciate it is graphically.

Scatterplot is a graph used to plot the scatter of scores on two variables used to display the correlational relationship between two variables.

Regression line: Straight line that fits best the scatterplot and describes the relationship between the variables in the graph: can also be presented as an equation that specifies where the line intersects.

Linear is a relationship between two variables that can be depicted by a straight line. Nonlinear is a relationship between two variables that cannot be depicted by a straight line: sometimes called curvilinear.

Multiple correlation coefficient: statistic that represents the overall linear association between several variables on the one hand and a single variable on the other hand.

What is Meta-Analysis? Meta-analysis is a statistical method for combining and analyzing the results from many studies to draw a general conclusion about relationships among variables.

Statistical artifacts are the characteristics of a particular study that distort the observed results. Researchers can correct for artifacts to arrive at a statistic that represents the true relationship.

There are different sorts of research:

• Micro research: the study of individual behavior.

• Macro research: the study of collective behavior.

• Meso research: the study of the interaction of individual and collective behavior.

2.4: Interpretation

Reliability: consistency or stability of a measure.

Validity: the accuracy of inference made based on test or performance data. It also addresses whether a measure accurately and completely represents what was intended to be measured.

Test-retest reliability: a test of reliability calculated by correlating measurements taken at time 1 with measurement taken at time 2.

Equivalent forms reliability is a type of reliability calculated by correlating measurements from a sample of individuals who complete different forms of the same test.

Internal consistency: form of reliability that assesses how consistently the items of a test measure a single construct: affected by the number of items in the test and the correlations among the test items.

Important to consider all types of errors: generalizability theory, an approach to the question of reliability that simultaneously considers all types of error in reliability estimates.

Predictor and criterion:

Predictor is the test chosen or developed to assess attributes identified as important for successful job performance.

Criterion-related validity: validity approach that is demonstrated by correlating a test score with a performance measure: improves researcher’s confidence in the interference that people with higher test scores have higher performance.

A criterion is an outcome variable that describes important aspects or demands of the job: the variable that we predict when evaluating the validity.

Predictive validity design: criterion related validity design in which there is a time lag between collection of the test data and the criterion data.

Concurrent validity design: criterion related validity design in which there is no time lag between gathering the test scores and the performance data.

A validity coefficient is a correlation coefficient between a test score and a performance measure.

Content-related validity is a design that demonstrates that the content of the selection procedure represents an adequate sample of important work behaviors and activities defined by the job analysis.

A construct is a psychological concept or characteristic that a predictor is intended to measure. Examples are intelligence, personality and leadership.

There is also construct validity: that is a validity approach in which investigators gather evidence to support decisions or interferences about psychological constructs: often begins with investigators demonstrating that a test designed to measure a particular construct correlates with other tests in the predicted manner.

How to understand individual differences? - Chapter 3

3.1 Individual Differences

It is important to understand differences in people in order to predict their behavior. Differences in academic achievement, intellectual development, criminal delinquency, choice of vocation, income level, and occupational performance can all help inform I-O psychologists.

Beginning to Measure Differences

James McKeen Cattell was the first to develop the mental test as a way of measuring individual differences, starting a field known as differential psychology. Cattell worked with Francis Galton in England, who measured inherited traits. Together they made a comprehensive mental test of intelligence, which Cattell applied to university applicants. Tests like theirs are called psychometric tests. Alfred Binet, in France, developed a test that led to the use of intelligence testing to screen military recruits. Intelligence is one of the most measured abilities assessed by employers.

Relating I-O Psychology with Psychometrics and Differential Psychology

Psychometrics remains one of the most used methods by I-O psychologists, instead of the experimental framework that other fields employ. Experimental frameworks try to reach general theories, while a differential psychologist is person-centered, looking for qualities in an individual. A differential psychologist can decide what should be measured and a psychometrician can decide how. An I-O psychologist actually administrates these tests and applies them to real-world situations. Cognitive ability is the most commonly measured trait. An individual’s capacity to acquire knowledge, solve problems, and apply reason to situations is their general mental ability (g).

Identifying Differences

Early in psychometrics, only general intelligence was really studied. Now, more traits and aspects of traits are studied (specific mental abilities like memory, personality traits like emotional stability, etc.) Broadening and deepening the scope of psychometric testing can help the results be more reliable and valid.

Different Types of Differences

The g-ocentric model examines mainly general mental ability. This is now extended to research on physical abilities, personality, interests, knowledge, and emotions. Specific performance areas are now addressed for specific jobs, such as organizational citizenship, counter-productive work behavior. and adaptability. Teluk and Jacobs developed a model on the belief that experience plays an important role on job performance.

There is also a growing consensus that four main categories of work include cognitive ability, physical ability, personality and interests. Vocational interests are not believed to impact job performance, and are most useful for guidance counselors so will not be discussed here.

3.2 Human Abilities and Attributes

Abilities

Edwin Fleishman gathered a taxonomy of 52 abilities that could be divided into the categories of cognitive, physical, and perceptual-motor.

Cognitive

“G” Intelligence

IQ stands for intelligence quotient, referring to the way intelligence used to be calculated. The term is still used. The definition of intelligence used to be the ability to learn and adapt to new environments. I-O psychologists have defined it as a general mental capacity that involves the ability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, plan, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. This is broad and includes many sub-parts. There are also cultural differences in what people consider as intelligence. Measures of “g” assess reasoning, problem-solving, and knowledge-acquisition.

“G” at Work

Meta-analyses of “g” and job performance demonstrate the predictive value of “g” as jobs become more complex. However, “g” is not a guarantee of success, and doesn’t address other important skills like interpersonal relations. Seeing “g” as one’s ability to process information, we must understand it manifests differently in different jobs (a farmer processes information differently than a real estate agent).

In the EU, “g” has been found to be similarly predictive of performance. Non-European countries are more of a mystery. What can be said is that “g” may be less important in production work, which is often relocated to non-“Western” countries.

Changing “G”

People seem to become more intelligent with age, and through the generations. The increase of intelligence ratings is called the Flynn effect. There is an estimated gain of 15 points in average intelligence test scores per generation. This may have to do with better schools and nutrition, more wide-spread education, or even the increasing complexity of daily life. Within generations, however, “g” is somewhat more stable.

Downsides of Retesting “G”

It is problematic to re-test a person for “g”, as it often results in higher scores. The initial test is considered more accurate than retakes, because they act more like memory tests.

Beyond “G”

Other abilities, like visual acuity, coordination, social skills, etc. are important to employment but not covered by the very general measure of “g”. Cognitive ability is best seen as consisting of multiple layers of abilities. Carroll suggested three layers:

1. “G”

2. Fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory, visual perception, auditory perception, retrieval ability, cognitive speed

3. Specific abilities that involve the abilities listed in the middle-tier (ex. information ordering)

Most theories of cognitive ability resemble Carroll’s. Some specific abilities can be predictive of career choice – mathematics and spatial abilities predict science and technology careers, high verbal ability predicts careers in the humanities. Furthermore, some people have more working memory than others, and are thus better at multi-tasking. This skill is important in certain jobs.

Physical, Psychomotor, and Sensory

Physical

Hogan suggested seven physical abilities useful for analyzing most jobs, which fall under three general factors and can be related to Fleishman and Reilly’s basic descriptors:

1. Muscular strength

   • Muscular Tension

   • Muscular Power

   • Muscular Endurance

2. Cardiovascular Endurance

• Cardiovascular Endurance

3. Movement Quality

• Flexibility

• Balance

• Neuro-muscular Coordination

Most physically demanding jobs employ all three general factors in one way or another.

Fairness in Testing

It’s important to look at whether tests of physical abilities are fair to women and older individuals (we lose stamina, muscle, and flexibility with age). Women have less muscle mass and lower stamina than men, but better flexibility. Tests might address only muscular strength, while a job might also require a great deal of flexibility. Sometimes tests inspire a sense of competition, while adequate results should be sufficient for hiring practices. Training can improve performance on tests. For insurance reasons, employers might look at physical tests as predictors of possible future health issues.

Sensory

Sensory abilities include vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and proprioception/ kinesthetic feedback (awareness of body position). The Americans with Disabilities Act forbids employers from asking about or testing sensory or physical disabilities until after they have made a job offer. Sensory abilities (like perceptual speed) have been found by Ackerman to be related to cognitive abilities.

Psychomotor

Also known as sensorimotor, psychomotor abilities include dexterity, reaction time, and coordination. Many jobs (from bartenders to surgeons) involve these abilities. Some of them are related to visual/auditory perceptual and cognitive abilities (like aiming and rate control).

Personality and Work

Personality is a predictor of general/work behavior and happiness. Managers pay attention to personality when hiring. Personality can predict whether someone will do something, not just if they can. Personality measures can be good predictors of work performance and long-term outcomes as well, allowing managers to have some idea of what an employee might do in the future.

Personality Models: the Big Five and Other Related Models

The Big Five make up the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality. These are five dimensions:

1. Openness to Experience

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

Remember them with the acronym: OCEAN

Barrick and Mount found evidence that conscientiousness levels were correlated with success in a range of work behaviors.

There may be more than just these five. Sub-factors like industriousness, order, and self-control might fall under conscientiousness. Musek suggests there is just one factor, similar to the concept of “g”, though not enough research has been done about this yet.

Combining Factors

Evidence shows that certain combinations of the big five traits can predict success. People high on conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability tend to have higher integrity (honesty and reliability). High stability with high extroversion is great for fitness instructors, for example.

Broad Personality Models and their Implications

Narrow traits are helpful in predicting specific job behaviors. while broad traits can predict general behavior. There has been an increase in research and application of specific trait measurement, suggesting this may be more useful in application. Personality trait measurements are most applicable in jobs where a person has a large degree of self-sufficiency and control (letting their personality shine through). Control moderates the relationship between personality and performance.

Personality over Life Span

Personality does not seem to change much over a person’s life span. The most substantial changes occur between the age of 20 and 40, and positive changes continue to occur into older age periods. Conscientiousness and agreeableness can sometimes improve in old age, while openness to experience may decline.

Other Attributes

Skills

Skills can be defined as actions that are practiced and improved through practice (such as social skills or aim.) They may depend on physical, cognitive, and personality characteristics. Non-technical skills like negotiation, communication, and conflict resolution can be categorized as people skills.

Knowledge

Knowledge is the accumulated factual information one has about a particular subject. This comes through training, school, or experience. It is closely related to skill, as it supports skill development. Another kind of knowledge is called tacit knowledge, which can be considered street sense. It is practical, action-oriented knowledge, often self-learned. Another way to see these two kinds of knowledge is to call one declarative knowledge (I know about that) and the other procedural knowledge (I know how to do that).

Competencies

I-O psychologists call combinations of knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality characteristics as competencies. These are sets of desired traits that are used to reach a particular desired result. Competencies only have meaning in relation to institutional goals.

Emotional Intelligence

Howard Gardner in the 1980’s proposed a theory of multiple intelligences. He suggested seven of them (bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Inter- and intrapersonal intelligence were later combined into the label emotional intelligence (EI). EI has been a contested and researched concept, but has so far not led to any real evidence. Lyusin proposed refining the concept by suggesting it’s not just about whether a person recognizes emotions, but also about whether they act upon these emotions, and in what way. EI and offshoots of this may be useful for understanding team behavior.

3.3 Assessment

Tests

A test is an objective and standardized way to measure a psychological construct using a sample of behavior. This definition is relatively uncontested. It is broad enough to cover many types of test that deal with a number of different subjects.

Test Scores

In order to be objective, tests attempt to quantify traits and give them a score. This can be pass-fail, or part of a graded continuum, or a numerical value. Assigning a score is different than interpreting a score. Meaning is assigned through norming, the comparison of one score to other relevant test scores. Whether or not a score is good is determined by whether or not it is better than average.

Using and Interpreting Tests

Interpreting certain types of test requires training. Only someone with formal training in psychological assessment should be trusted to interpret the results of a psychological test, as others will likely make mistakes that lead to inappropriate actions. I-O psychologists can ensure that test results are reliably interpreted.

Test Batteries

A test battery is a collection of tests of different attributes, which when interpreted all together can give someone a fuller picture of a person’s abilities, personality, and skills. Some test batteries are combined to arrive at a single, comparable score.

Finding Tests

There are a number of lists and databases of psychological tests, one of which is the Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) established in 1938.

Administrative Tests

Speed and Power Tests

Speed tests have rigid time limits, and end up measuring a person’s response time rather than their knowledge. Power tests have relaxed time limits, allowing all test-takers to complete the test and providing a clearer view on the individual’s actual knowledge. Speed tests end up with more variable results, making it easy to predict future behavior. However, they may not be appropriate if a job doesn’t require speed, and can be unfair to older test-takers with slower response times that are nevertheless competent.

Group Testing versus Individual Testing

Group tests are cheaper and more efficient because many people can complete them at the same time, but they cannot be used in all measures. Things like hand-eye coordination tests, or thorough assessments of overall performance, must be tested individually. They also allow a person’s method, not just their results, to be observed.

Pen and Paper Tests and Performance Tests

Pen and paper tests (written tests, they can also be digital) are common and inexpensive to administer. Performance tests, on the other hand, require the individual to make a response by physical action to demonstrate procedural knowledge.

Cultural Differences in Testing

Back in the 1950’s, testing didn’t have as many controls as it does today. Some tests might be unfair and inaccurate because they actually test a person’s ability to read well more than they test the trait they are meant to. While these problems have largely come under control, tests still have the problem that they are often not generalizable to other cultures.

Murphy and Davidshofer came up with three important considerations to take into account when thinking about testing:

• Fairness of the test: a value judgement on whether decisions should be made based on a certain test.

• Bias: the degree to which a test unfairly tends towards a certain outcome due to the way it is designed or administered.

• Culture: the extent to which the text-taker has had the opportunity to learn about the subject matter. For instance, a test asking about how to reprogram a blue ray player would not be fair if given to an Amish person who has never interacted with that level of technology. Similarly, cognition tests designed for North Americans can be culturally unfair if administered to people in sub-Saharan Africa.

3.4 Procedures in Assessment

Content

Cognitive Ability

Cognitive ability is a person’s capacity to plan, reason, and solve problems. Cognitive ability tests show what a person knows, perceives or understands, and how he/she solves problems. Some tests provide a single score, such as the Wonderlic Personnel Test. This test is widely used and considered highly reliable. Other tests measure specific abilities within cognition, such as spatial relations.

Cognitive test batteries are longer than single score tests. One of the first of these was the test of Primary Mental Abilities. Some are made for the military, others for the government. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) are cognitive test batteries for students. Finally, knowledge tests are those designed to test specific learned knowledge.

Physical Ability

It is possible to measure the seven basic physical abilities separately, but most jobs require a combination of these abilities. There is a good deal of evidence supporting the use of physical performance tests to predict success in physically demanding work. They are best used to predict performance rather than risk of injury.

Psychomotor ability tests involve the coordinated movement of limbs in response to environmental situations. This might include a dexterity test.

Personality

Since we know personality attributes can significantly affect job success, it is important that personality testing is reliable. There are two types of uses for personality tests in personnel acquisition. Screen-in tests are used to identify variations of normal personalities. Screen-out tests are used to identify signs of psychopathology. Screen out tests are considered medical and may not apply to workplaces as this may disadvantage disabled people. Problems related to personality measures include those in the following sections.

Faking

One can answer a personality test in a way that puts them in what they see as the best possible light, due to personality being largely about self-presentation. One possible solution is a forced choice test, in which the individual ranks themselves according to alternative positive-seeming items. This reduces distortion, but is easily bypassed. It is also important for test-takers to answer questions with a frame-of-reference consistent to the environment the test is meant for (in workplace testing, answer for your workplace personality). It turns out, however, not to matter too much whether a person fakes a personality test, it remains almost as predictive.

Integrity Testing

These are essentially honesty tests, trying to predict dishonest behavior in employees. Two types of integrity tests are: the overt integrity test, which asks about past behavior., and the personality-based integrity test, which asks broader questions about things like social responsibility and conscientiousness that are meant to lead to conclusions on integrity. Four components to integrity tests are:

• Antisocial behavior

• Socialization

• Positive outlook

• Orderliness/diligence

Integrity tests tend to be pass-fail, though employers do not often know enough about the technicalities of such tests and may end up with false results. Whether or not to use a specific integrity test or a broad personality test is still disputed. An employer might use both types of tests, to be sure.

Individual Assessments

Individual assessments are only applied to a single candidate, and often take time and specialized treatment, making them expensive. This involves individually scored pen and pencil tests, but can manifest in many ways according to the position. It may also involve interviews.

Interviews

Content

A structured interview involves specific questions, often asking for detail. One structured interview is a situational interview, which asks the test-taker to describe hypothetical responses. Another form is the behavior description interview, which asks what a person has actually done in the past, rather than just hypothetically.

An unstructured interview consists of open-ended questions intended to get the person talking openly to whichever questions they prefer to answer. This can be very comprehensive, though less statistically valid. The current field might benefit from less structured interviews, as test-takers see them as less difficult. Different test-takers have different anxieties: communication, appearance, social skills, interview performance, and behavioral control. These also affect the interviewer.

Assessment Centres

Assessment centres are collections of procedures for evaluation, and can be carried out anywhere. These are typically administered to groups and assessed by multiple assessors. Multiple methods of assessment are generally used. Assessment centres can result in job placement, ranking, predictions of long-term potential, or the development of learning aids for the people being assessed. Think of assessment centres like The Apprentice.

Work Samples

Work Sample Testing

A work sample tests assesses a person’s behavior based on a realistic job-like condition. Work samples, like assessment centres, tend to be more positively regarded by test-takers. They feel realistic and fair. They are not, however, intrinsically valid.

Situational Judgement

Situational Judgment tests give the test-taker a hypothetical situation or problem and ask them to choose the best out of a series of solutions. This is used for “white collar” jobs. These have been found to be predictors of success. They are best used to measure procedural knowledge. They have found to be less biased, as well, more accurately measuring cognitive ability among minorities than specific cognitive tests. They are job-related, accepted by the test-takers, and reduce adverse impact.

3.5 Other Assessment Issues

Incremental Validity

There are many examples of studies that pit one test against another to see which is more valid. This is a very black and white, either/or way of looking at things. In fact, one test might actually add to the validity of another. This is called incremental validity. Tests that are incrementally valid include personality measures and biographical information, personality and mental ability measures, etc. Assessment must find the right combination of tools to achieve the greatest predictive ability.

Biographical Information

Biographical data (biodata) includes information about previous jobs, education, and specialized training (among other things) that can be thought of as a test if gathered correctly. According to the ecology model, all events in a person’s life occur as a result of their own personal choices, which actually signal abilities, personality characteristics, and interests. As such, biodata can be very useful. Biodata items are different than other forms of assessment, and have the following characteristics:

1. Historical: they have occurred or are occurring.

2. External: they can be observed and might involve other people.

3. Objective: they are factual and less prone to observation.

4. Discrete: they have a beginning and an end, and are definable.

5. Control: they are under the control of the individual.

6. Relevant and non-invasive: they are mostly job-related and not personal.

Biodata items may be subject to social desirability influences and faking.

Grades

Applications may ask for grade point averages (GPAs). There is little evidence to support this tendency. However, level of education seems to correlate with cognitive ability. Because of this, requiring at least one year of college from job applicants may be beneficial. Letters of recommendation are also often requested. Since these are unlikely to be perfectly honest and mention both the negative and the positive, they tend to be irrelevant.

Minimum Qualifications of Applicants

In the public sector, minimum qualifications (MQs) involve a combination of training and practical experience in a given field. This means the person has the requisite skills for a job without requiring further training. They are contested, and might be improved with more focus on job analysis and more flexibility with alternatives to formal course requirements.

Graphology (handwriting analysis) and the Polygraph test (lie detector test) are useless!

Drug and Alcohol Testing

Do people find drug and alcohol testing acceptable? Only if the job involves a risk to the public. How legal is drug and alcohol testing? In government and railroad jobs, the practice has been upheld. Furthermore, 2/3 of large and medium companies screen new hires, 1/3 of these screen current employees. Laws permit random testing in fields that are responsible for public safety. Furthermore, a history of drug use has been found to be predictive of absenteeism and involuntary turnover. One major problem with drug testing, however, is its inaccuracy. There are many false positives from sloppy procedures and testing, which can severely threaten innocent employees.

Digital Assessments

Tests are increasingly available in digital form and on the internet, reducing the time and effort required of the applicant and increasing the ease with which the data can be analyzed. Personality tests are equivalent when taken by conventional means and taken on the internet, and test-takers tend to prefer the internet. For this, biodata, and situational judgment, web-based assessment can have superior results. For general mental ability and cognitive ability tests, web-based assessment may be better, but could be hindered if they are also speed tests, as dexterity with a mouse and keyboard is not as common. People who take tests by reading all of the content before answering, or flipping back and forth, may be hindered by web tests. Computers do have the ability to measure reaction time, spatial and perceptual abilities in ways pen and paper tests cannot.

Unproctored Testing

Since web-testing can be done at home, a new problem arises – there cannot always be someone there to ensure the test is taken properly or by the actual candidate. Unsupervised testing is called unproctored internet testing (UIT). This is more of a problem with tests of ability, which have more “right” answers, than for personality and motivation. Discussions of UIT conclude that cognitive tests are less suitable than non-cognitive tests. High stakes testing is inappropriate for UIT. If used, follow-up proctored testing is necessary. Furthermore, it’s uncertain whether UITs are as valid. Cheating is likely but hard to monitor. Testing is limited by access to a computer. Finally, test items and results may be less secure because they are shared over the internet.

Candidacy

To be considered an applicant, an individual must submit an expression of interest which clearly states their objective qualifications. The employer must be considering the applicant. The applicant must not remove themselves from consideration.

Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)

Computer adaptive testing (CAT) is a procedure in which an applicant doesn’t need to answer every question of a test, only a few representative questions that place them in the appropriate testing category. They can then take individually tailored tests. The preliminary test is called a routing test. These tests can be quicker and more accurate.

Demographics

Demographic differences of commonly tested traits and abilities include:

• General mental ability: East Asian – whites—Hispanics—African Americans. Older score more poorly than younger employees. Men and women score equally.

• Personality: most demographics show similar scores, though men tend to be higher in “rugged individualism” than women.

• Physical abilities: men score higher in muscle strength and stamina, women score higher on coordination, balance, and flexibility.

• Mode of presentation: whites obtain higher scores with pen and paper tests, but the racial difference is diminished in video testing.

• Interviews and biodata: minority test takers do slightly more poorly than majority test takers.

What is performance? - Chapter 4

4.1 Performance

Variables that have been used to measure performance include: time to complete a training course, the rate of production, absent days, sales values, and promotion rate. The problem with all of these variables is that they can all be influenced unfairly by institutional, organizational factors beyond the employee’s control.

Campbell’s Model

I-O psychologists Campbell et al. have an alternative model. Performance is behavior that can be observed, or in the case of immaterial labor like thinking, planning and problem-solving, can be reported by the individual. Performance only includes relevant work behavior, and is not a consequence of an action, but is the action. Effectiveness is an evaluation of performance results. According to Campbell, productivity is the ratio of effectiveness to the cost of achieving that. Effectiveness being the output, and the cost of achievement the input.

Campbell suggested three determinants of productivity: declarative knowledge (DK), procedural knowledge and skill (PKS), and motivation (M). Incentives might increase M, while training programs might increase DK and PKS.

Performance Components

DK, PKS, and M are determinants of performance. They are not performance components, the behaviors that make up performance. Campbell defined 8 of these components:

1. Job-specific task proficiency (all jobs)

2. Maintaining personal discipline (all jobs)

3. Demonstrating effort (all jobs)

4. Facilitating peer and team performance

5. Non-job-specific task proficiency

6. Written and oral communication task proficiency

7. Supervision/leadership

8. Management/administration

Typical Performance and Maximum Performance

There is a distinction between typical performance (working at 70% effort for 8 hours) and maximum performance (working at 100% effort for 4 hours). People with high maximum performance may be very valuable in an organization that has to respond effectively to episodic challenges. It might be wise to find employees with the smallest variation between typical and maximum performance.

Criterion Deficiency

The term “criterion” is used here in the same way we might use the word “measure”. Criterion deficiency is what happens when an actual criterion is missing information that is part of the behavior being measured. Criterion contamination is when an actual criterion includes information that is unrelated to the behavior being measured. Performance can be treated as a criterion. If a collective measure of all relevant aspects of job performance could exist, it would be the ultimate criterion. However, we’re stuck with the actual criterion, the measure that we can obtain within the limits of the measures we have. Campbell’s model protects against criterion contamination by focusing on behaviors and worker control over outcomes. Of course, no job has only one behavior that predicts performance.

4.2 Extensions of the Basic Model

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)

There are two main types of workers – the ones who do the minimum and avoid extra effort, and the eager beavers who go above and beyond, making extra effort. The latter is considered organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Organ et al. developed measures that look at two aspects of OCB, altruism (helpful behavior directed towards individuals and groups) and generalized compliance (helpful behavior directed towards the organization). OCB is considered more important in team tasks, and is largely a social phenomenon. It is also more commonly measured as a way to predict performance. Focusing on OCB can be considered a sort of positive psychology approach, rewarding good behavior instead of punishing bad. Task performance is better predicted by cognitive ability measures, but OCB is better predicted by personality tests, as those high in conscientiousness are higher in OCB. In research so far, OCB seems to be cross-cultural.

Causes and Correlates

In structured jobs with rigid tasks and rules, OCB (which involves initiative) can actually be harmful as eager employees might risk accident. In high autonomy jobs, OCB is more common than in low autonomy jobs. The more negative the political environment of the organization, the lower the OCB. Interestingly, men displaying OCB are viewed positively while women displaying OCB are seen to be just doing their jobs. Of course, a problem with OCB is that if companies start to require it of their employees, this would be unfair. People being paid to do their job should not be expected to do their job and more.

Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is voluntary behavior that violates organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization and/or its members. Vardi and Weiner distinguished three main types of CWB:

1. S: self-gain (ex. Stealing)

2. O: organizational gain (ex. Overcharging)

3. D: destructive (ex. Sabotage)

Three common counterproductive behaviors are dishonesty, absenteeism, and sabotage.

• CWB 1: Dishonesty

  Dishonesty includes theft of goods and theft of time (leaving early, etc.) and also includes dishonest communication. This may sometimes be caused by feelings that one is being treated unjustly by the organization and act as a sort of revenge.

• CWB 2: Absenteeism

  Contrary to being absent for illness or injury, avoidable absenteeism is when an employee stays home from work for other reasons. This is, in part, related to how an employee views the attitudes of their organization, and may relate to job dissatisfaction.

• CWB 3: Sabotage (Listen all of y'all this is Sabotage!)

  Sabotage is the intention to damage, disrupt, or subvert the operations of the organization for personal purposes. Related to this is Lordstown Syndrome, named after a GM plant in which workers who were placed under unreasonable time pressure and stress began acts of sabotage. High levels of sabotage are related to low satisfaction.

Causes and Treatments

While CWB is related to personality factors like low conscientiousness, low emotional stability, high dissatisfaction and alienation, personality is not a determinant of CWB. Situational constraints, feelings of injustice and individual need all play a role. Deviance may also be predicted by narcissism, openness to experience, negative emotion and anger. People with CWB tend to feel justified in their actions. Techniques that can be used to manage CWB include prompt and justified punishment, eliciting genuine apologies, exposure to positive models, training in social and communication skills, and improving mood through humor and empathy.

Thinking about OCB and CWB Dimensionally

OCB and CWB might be two sides of one dimension, related to pro-social behavior. Since, however, OCB and CWB can both be found occurring in a single person, they are likely to be distinct.

Proactivity

Some researchers suggest that OCB is reactive as employees respond to environmental needs. Proactive behavior involves initiative when a need is not obvious. Proactive behavior is directed towards customers. This might be damaging if the employee has gaps in knowledge and skill or continues doing something when no progress is made. So far, since proactive behavior can have both positive and negative consequences, no conclusions have been made.

Adaptive Work Performance

Adaptive work performance includes flexibility and the ability to adapt to new situations. This is important as technologies change more frequently, corporate restructuring occurs, and globalization requires new skills. Eight adaptive performance areas include:

1. Handling crises

2. Handling on-the-job stress

3. Creative problem-solving

4. Dealing with uncertainty and unpredictability in the workplace

5. Learning new tasks, technologies, and procedures

6. Dealing with interpersonal situations

7. Interacting with different cultures

8. Adapting to physical challenges

Types of Performance Measures

Three types of performance measures have been suggested:

• Objective performance measures: quantitative count of work results like sales volume, complaint letters, and output.

• Judgment measures: evaluation of the effectiveness of work behavior in the form of a performance evaluation.

• Personnel measures: measure that includes absences, accidents, tardiness, rate of advancement, disciplinary action, and commendations.

4.3 Job Analysis: Principles and Practices

Using Job Analysis Information

Job analysis is the process that determines the important tasks of a job and the human attributes necessary to successfully perform those tasks. The results can be used for:

• Job description: a list of the types of tasks and required attributes of a job, for recruiting)

• Recruiting: targeting job ads for the most qualified candidates.

• Selection: choosing the most potentially successful future employees.

• Training: identifying and targeting the most useful skills and knowledge sets for training.

• Compensation: a more realistic view of job components and expectations can allow for a comparative value to be given to each job.

• Promotion and job assignment: allowing organizations to determine what attributes are needed at what rungs of the job ladder.

• Workforce reduction: allowing organizations to determine what jobs are necessary and which are redundant when restructuring.

• Criterion development: the development of criterion to define successful performance.

• Performance assessment: the development of more accurate ways to assess a person’s performance.

• Litigation: providing evidence that the test and assessment practices of the organization are valid when results are contested in court.

History of Job Analysis

Morris Viteles, one of the first I-O psychologists, used job analysis to recruit employees for a street car company. A job psychograph was an early form used to display the mental requirements of a job.

Types of Job Analysis

Two ways to approach job analysis are 1) taking a work/task-oriented approach which begins with the statement of actual tasks, tools used, and context, and 2) worker-oriented approach which focuses on the characteristics of the worker necessary to accomplish tasks that define the job. Whichever approach one takes, the next task is to identify attributes (KSAOs: knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics). Once these are identified, tests can be chosen to measure them. Both approaches lead to the same ends, so neither can be considered the “right” way.

Conducting Job Analysis

A term often used in job analysis is subject matter expert (SME), which is usually a worker or their supervisor. By performing the job, they become an expert. Common methods of analysis include:

• Observation: simply watching SMEs on the job and asking questions while they work.

• Interviewing: after observation, actually interviewing the SME can be effective, especially if they are structured.

• Work diaries and the critical incident technique: asking SMEs to fill out a work diary logging their activities over a period of time, or using the critical incident technique by asking SMEs to identify critical aspects of behavior or performance that have led to success or failure.

• Surveys and questionnaires: questionnaires that include task statements which the SME rates according to their importance.

4.4 New Developments in Job Analysis

Electronic Performance Monitoring

Electronic performance monitoring is a way to monitor work performance digitally or electronically, which can provide more accurate result. For instance, at a call center, calls may be monitored for their speed and success. This can allow employers to have a relatively unbiased view of performance, without input from SMEs. Of course, this may seem unfair to employees and make them fear punishment.

Analyzing Cognitive Tasks

Cognitive task analysis (CTA) is a method of separating job and task performance into individual and measurable units. It emphasizes mental processes and required knowledge. Think-aloud protocol is a precursor to this, in which the skilled worker describes how they think when accomplishing a task. The focus, then, is on the cognitive operations of the worker rather than the KSAOs. CTA does not replace other forms of job analysis, but adds to them. CTA can be particularly helpful in forms of jobs that involve immaterial labor like problem-solving and planning, which are hard to observe. It is, however, time-consuming and hard to conduct correctly. It might be worthwhile if there are persistent performance problems, costly errors, if training for the position is difficult, and if achieving high performance takes a long time.

Work Context

The context of a job can impact how the job is done and how it is perceived. One taxonomy for describing work context includes three facets: interpersonal relationships, physical work conditions, and structural job characteristics. By including work context variables in job analysis, more specific KSAOs can be identified. For jobs that are unusually difficult or dangerous, employees can be compensated more, thus reducing employee turnover. One technique for providing practical information about a job is the realistic job preview (RJP), which includes both task information and contextual information.

Job Analysis based on Personality

The Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) identifies personality predictors of job performance in order to supplement other job analysis devices. The PPRF dimensions relate to the Big 5 personality dimensions.

The Job-Analysis Process

More information from more sources leads to a better understanding of a job. Task-based analyses are less useful than worker- and behavior-based analyses.

Computer-Based

Computer-based job analysis systems are cheaper and more efficient. Of course, if the data is bad, the subsequent analysis will be bad, too.

Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

An early program of job analysis was called the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T), which was used for occupational counseling from the 1930’s to as late as 1991. After that, it’s heavily task-based information was less useful in changing job markets. In 1995, the Occupational Information Network O*NET was established, a collection of databases that allow for different ways of matching an applicant with a job. Each database is based on a well-developed taxonomy. O*NET can be used to identify skill standards by linking occupations, facilitate the transition from school to work, assist unemployed workers to find re-employment and training, and assist employers to improve their workplaces.

The Process of Competency Modeling

Competency modeling is a process that identifies characteristics desired across all jobs within an organization, which should help predict behavior across a number of tasks and settings and establish a set of core characteristics fundamental to the organizational identity. Competency modeling is more flexible, recognizing that the workplace evolves. It is suggested that combining competency modeling with job analysis would be the most useful way of approaching the problem of defining jobs.

4.5 Legal Considerations of Job Evaluation

Evaluation

Employers have a certain amount of money that they must divide amongst their employees. In order to do this fairly, they evaluate the jobs, making internal decisions by comparing one job to another to establish their relative merit. Most job evaluation systems identify compensable factors like responsibility, effort, and working conditions. A great deal of difference in pay is based on a job’s cognitive requirements. Labor that requires emotional strength and control is less well-compensated independent of cognitive ability.

Comparable Worth

Comparable worth is the idea that people whose jobs are comparably worthy should receive comparable pay. Internal controls like job evaluation and external controls like salary surveys can help assure comparability. The problem is – what is comparable? There is still a problem in which female employees who do comparable work to male employees are paid less. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 requires equal pay for equal work. However, employers can argue comparability. This is an issue of social justice and is often under debate.

Employment Litigation

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 put job evaluation in a central role in discrimination lawsuits. It acts as evidence. Back in 1978, the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures required that validity be demonstrated and that it include a connection between job tasks and the test used to select people for that job. However, these are now outdated as I-O psychology continues to evolve and develop new forms of job analysis.

How to measure performance? - Chapter 5

5.1 Basic Concepts

Using Performance Information

Performance measurement is a part of our lives, in school and work. Some of the most common uses for performance measurements in the workplace are:

• Establishing criterion data

• Developing employee strengths

• Increasing motivation/satisfaction in the employee

• Choosing how to distribute rewards

• Determining which employees are possible to transfer

• Assessing the possibility of promotion

• Assessing the necessity of a layoff

Comparing Performance Measures

Relationships between different types of performance measures are weak. They do not seem to be interchangeable, as each measure gives a different perspective on performance. There is also no general performance factor. Furthermore, even “objective” measures can entail subjective judgments. Objective measures are not necessarily reliable, and judgmental performance measures are actually more likely to be accurate.

Practical Performance Monitoring

Hands-on performance measures involve an accurate simulation of central aspects of work.

Electronic Performance Monitoring

Electronic performance monitoring uses electrical devices (often tools of the job like the delivery man’s electronic hand-held tracker) to provide detailed and accurate work logs. Some systems are sophisticated enough to distinguish between productive time spent on a computer (working), non-productive time (browsing Facebook), and counterproductive time (watching pornography). Banning non-productive computer time may do more harm than good, especially among creative employees. On the negative side, electronic performance monitoring can be seen as an invasion of privacy. Employees are more likely to accept monitoring if they think the activities being monitored are job relevant, if they are able to help design and implement the monitoring, are able to occasionally delay or prevent the monitoring, and if they are given advanced warning on when the monitoring will occur. Performance improves when highly skilled workers are monitored, when the worker is able to delay monitoring, and when low-skilled employees are not monitored.

Performance Management

Among the concepts of performance appraisal and evaluation is performance management. Performance management systems emphasize the link between individual behavior and organizational strategies by defining performance in the context of organizational goals. It is developed by both the employer and the employee. It is different from performance appraisal in that it occurs more frequently and allows the employee to take a more participatory role. Performance management has three components:

1. Definition of performance in the context of the specific job.

2. Measurement process.

3. Communication between supervisor and subordinate about actual vs. expected performance.

Fairness and Measurement

Performance appraisal can cause a feeling of being treated unfairly. There are four factors related to this perception:

1. Increased frequency of appraisal increases perception of fairness.

2. Working with supervisor to fix problems increases perception of fairness.

3. It is fairer if the supervisor knows enough about the employee’s duties.

4. It is fairer if the supervisor knows about the employee’s actual performance.

Distributive justice is whether the rewards/punishments match the performance. Procedural justice is related to the process of assigning rating. Interpersonal justice is related to how respectful and personal the communications around the evaluation are, especially feedback and performance. Fairness is especially important if the appraisal is negative.

5.2 Performance Rating

Performance Rating Theories

Overall

An overall performance rating is like a Grade Point Average in that it is a rating meant to represent a broad array of performance factors and has no inherent meaning. Furthermore, it has been shown that negative performance data makes a more significant impact on overall performance than positive performance data. Overall performance ratings are influenced by task performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and counterproductive work behavior (CWB).

A new perspective on overall performance suggests that the rating represents a general performance factor. It might be possible that, depending on why an evaluation is being performed, a measure of overall performance can be better than a measure of individual performance factors.

Trait

Contemporary performance evaluation looks at actual behavior and skills, while the old method was to look at stable traits. However, since traits are personality tendencies and not actual actions, they are predictive rather than evaluative.

Task-Based

In a task-based evaluation, the employee’s performance on individual tasks (duties) is measured. Because the results are simple and direct, they hold up best in court.

Critical Incidents

Critical incidents are examples of behavior considered critical in determining performance rating.

OCB and Adaptive Ratings

OCB seems to play a role in almost all types of jobs, and so may be a very helpful way to rate performance. Adaptive performance dimensions (which measure how quickly and well a person adapts to new situations) also seems to span across more jobs, and may be similarly useful.

Structural

Structural characteristics of rating scales include:

• The extent to which the characteristic being measured is behaviorally defined.

• The extent to which the response categories are defined.

• The degree to which the person being tested can figure out what the test-maker intended.

If any of these characteristics are missing, there is an opportunity for error in assigning and interpreting ratings.

Formats for Rating

Graphic Ratings Scales (Visual Scales from Low to High)

Graphic ratings scales run from low to high and require the person taking the test to mark the “anchor point” they think is accurate. While criticized for their lack of definition, many versions of this type of scale actually solve that problem. Interestingly, people being rated prefer a higher scale (0-10) over a lower one (0-3), because they see more room for improvement. Instead of having to move from “average” (2) to “outstanding” (3), they can move from average (5) to a bit above average (6).

Checklists (Place a Checkmark!)

A checklist provides the rater with a list of behaviors and asks them to check the one most applicable to them.

Weighted checklist: Items tend to have values assigned to them that correspond with performance level. How they are weighted is determined by experts in the position.

Forced-choice checklist: For more accurate results, the rater must choose between a number of statements to describe the ratee. This makes it difficult for the rater to angle their evaluation towards either good or bad, which may make the evaluation less biased.

Behavioral

Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) are a format that includes behavioral anchors describing performed behaviors and expected behaviors.

They can be called behavioral expectation scales because they often deal in hypothetical situations. To make a really accurate collection of bars, a long time is needed, consulting with an SME.

Behavioral observation scales (BOS) are maybe more accurate as they deal with what a person has done, rather than what they might do. It asks the rater to determine how frequently an employee has been observed to act in a certain way, from almost never to almost always. BOS are preferred by raters for their focus.

Employee Comparison

Employee comparison methods are used to evaluate one employee by comparing them to another. This might involve simple ranking on one ability measure, or on multiple dimensions for which a general score is determined. It is better to compare individual characteristics than an overall performance score. Paired comparison is a method that compares an employee with the same job title as another individual being considered. This can be used in groups, comparing a single person with many individuals.

Employee comparison is useful in situations where organizations need to perform layoffs. For purposes other than layoffs, it is not so useful. It does not give a clear standard of performance so does not help people improve. It is also problematic in that people working in different contexts cannot necessarily be compared with one another.

Computer Adaptive Rating Scales (CARS)

Computer Adaptive Rating Scales (CARS) eliminate the problem that paired comparison is time-consuming and does not provide a clear standard. CARS present statements that might characterize a given employee, and the rater must choose which statement is more descriptive of the employee. CARS, (like previously mentioned CAT) zeroes in on the probably performance level.

5.3 The Process of Performance Rating

Sources for Rating

Managers and Supervisors

Traditionally, supervisors are one of the best sources of evaluation because they tend to be the ones expected to provide feedback about performance. However, with telecommuting their ability to provide accurate rating is constrained. Supervisors may be reluctant to evaluate their employees because they may have had fewer moments in which the employee reported to them, the employee may have low experience levels leading to more corrective interactions, and the employee might not trust the supervisor, which could lead to more conflict. The less confident the employee is in the system, the more likely they are to feel like they are unfairly treated. Supervisors must understand that if their performance evaluation and feedback is swift and accurate, things run more smoothly and their jobs are easier.

Fellow Employees

Peers come into contact with the evaluated employee most often, so are valuable raters. They see how their fellow employee interacts with all levels of management and customers. They may, however, be physically separated by telecommuting or separate offices, and may have a conflict of interest if competing for the same resources. Furthermore, if the peer has a similar personality to the person being rated, they tend to rate higher.

Personal Evaluation

It is common that an employee is given a self-rating form which they bring to an evaluation and compare with a similar form filled out by the rater. The two then work together to make a final rating. This increases the sense of justice felt by the employee. If the rating is used to determine pay increases, however, it can be a conflict of interest. Furthermore, an individual is not likely to able to judge their own performance realistically. Poor performers overestimate their abilities, high performers underestimate their abilities. Self-appraisals are best when used for developmental purposes and can be placed in context with the perceptions of others.

Subordinates

The evaluation of supervisors/managers by subordinates (as long as it is not used for administrative and salary decisions) can be very helpful. It can lead both to an improvement in management as well as to more understanding on the part of the subordinate to the challenges of management. It is critical, of course, that it is also anonymous.

Customers and Suppliers

Looking at how customers evaluate their interactions with employees is especially helpful in an increasingly customer-oriented job market. This must be kept limited to the elements of performance they can notice (like customer service). Suppliers may also provide valuable information.

360-Degree Rating Systems

The use of more than one of these sources has been called the “360-degree” rating system. This can be useful for development and feedback.

Distortions in Rating

The Central Tendency Error

Rating errors are inaccuracies in rating that can be either actual errors or intentional or systematic errors. The central tendency error occurs when raters consistently choose the middle of a scale when rating an employee who actually falls on an extreme end of the scale. Some tests encourage this error by making the rater explain their choices when they are extreme.

The Leniency-Severity Error

The leniency-severity error occurs when a rater is either unusually lenient or unusually severe. One safeguard against this is to use well-defined behavioral anchors for rating scales.

The Halo Error

The halo error is when a rater assigns the same rating to an employee on a number of different dimensions, meaning that the evaluation fails to identify strengths and weaknesses. Rating dimensions are not necessarily completely independent, so a “true” halo in which a person’s high performance in one area raises their performance in another area must be considered possible. However, this could be genuine error.

Training Raters

Administration

Experienced managers will have been exposed to many simple graphic rating systems that do not need much training. For uncommon measures, however, raters might need some training. If the measure is ambiguous, training allows raters to come to a consensus about what a particular anchor means.

Psychometrics

Basic psychometric training helps raters become aware of rating distortions as a way of possibly preventing them. Unfortunately, this tends to lead to raters focusing more on preventing distortion than on accurately rating the employee.

Frame-of-Reference

Frame-of-reference training includes providing information on the multidimensional nature of performance, ensuring that raters understand what anchors mean, engaging in practice rating exercises and providing feedback on these practice exercises. This has been found more effective than the psychometric approach.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability of Ratings

The inter-rater reliability of performance ratings end up between +.50 and +.60, a “poor” result. This is, of course, because each rater comes from a different perspective, working with entirely different data about the individual. There is a difference between the first-level supervisor who observes daily work and the second-level supervisor who sees only the results.

Validity of Ratings

Validity of ratings depends on how the scales were conceived and developed, how representative they are of important aspects of work behavior and whether they have appropriate structural characteristics.

5.4 Social and Legal Context

Why Should We Rate?

Each perspective in performance rating has a different goal for involvement. Rater goals:

• To maintain or improve task performance.

• To maintain or improve interpersonal relations with the ratee.

• To strategically enhance the standing of a supervisor or work group.

• To confirm the rater’s view of themselves as a person of high standards (internalizing).

Ratee goals:

• To gather information about standards, ranking, and expectations.

• To give information about the constraints on performance and personal willingness to improve.

Organizational goals:

• (Between-person) salary administration, promotion, layoffs, etc.

• (Within-person) identification of training needs, performance feedback, strengths and weaknesses.

• (Systems-maintenance) developing the organization, managing manpower, evaluating the system, identifying training deficits.

Conflicts in Goals

Because there are many people interested in the results of a performance evaluation for different reasons, there may be conflicts. A rater might want to give an employee a warning by giving them a low rating even if their performance doesn’t warrant it, yet not actually want to get rid of the employee. It might be a solution to have different evaluation systems used for different purposes. Another solution could be to involve the different stakeholders more, or perhaps rewarding raters for accuracy.

Feedback on Performance

Feedback reduces uncertainty for the individual worker. Both sides of the feedback process prefer positivity, but since there is always room for improvement, feedback is usually mixed. If the same information is used for different reasons (firing/hiring decisions as well as training) this can conflict. It’s best that feedback is kept separate from administrative purposes. Even so, when given a lot of negative feedback at once, many people have a “ceiling”, a maximum amount of negative comments they will listen to before they get defensive.

The individual is most likely to accept negative feedback if they feel that the supervisor has a sufficient sample of their behavior, if the two agree on what the individual’s duties are, if they agree on what good performance is, and if they focus on ways to improve rather than simply recording bad performance.

Destructive vs. Constructive Criticism

Destructive criticism is negative feedback that is cruel, sarcastic, or offensive. It tends to be generalized rather than specific, and internal (directed towards personality characteristics) rather than external (directed towards job-relevant behaviors). This type of criticism often results when negative feedback is allowed to pile up, unexpressed. An apology is a good way to repair the damage, but allowing the employee to vent is not. The apology should be swift.

360-Degree Feedback

Like 360-degree evaluation, 360-degree feedback involves getting feedback from multiple sources. For it to be effective, the sources must be anonymous, the evaluators should be identified by the supervisor and employee alike, the feedback should be used only for development purposes, the sources should be trained, and the session should be followed up with opportunities to show progress. The effect of 360-degree feedback is higher if common themes can be identified. Research has found that multi-source ratings are more accurate, that different sources tend to agree on the meanings of dimensions, and that multisource feedback improves performance to some degree. If a small number of negative performance comments is given, a supervisor OR employee’s performance tends to rise. However, if there are a large number of negative comments, performance tends to decline. 360-degree feedback might not be as effective as feedback from an individual coach.

Culture and Evaluation

It was found when looking at the collectivist, high-power-gap cultures in Venezuela and Colombia, that peers were better able to evaluate the ratee. Managers were more modest in self-ratings and more lenient towards superiors. Hofstede’s theory of culture might explain some of the differences in evaluation. For instance, individualist cultures might be more comfortable with traditional evaluation while collectivist cultures might be more comfortable with group/team evaluation. High power distance might lead to resistance to a 360-degree model. Low tolerance for uncertainty may be linked to directness of feedback. Masculine cultures may celebrate achievement while feminine cultures might emphasize interpersonal cohesion. Long-term orientation cultures might focus more on performance feedback as well.

Legal Aspects of Evaluation

A forced distribution rating system requires evaluators to place employees into performance categories (low, moderate, high). For example, Ford forced 10% into a high-performance category, 80% into a mid-performance category, and 10% in a low-performance category. This was highly contested due to the sense of unfairness and arbitrariness of it. It was fought in court, considered a violation of procedural justice, and the policy was discarded. A technique called policy capturing allows researchers to code characteristics and determine which weighs most heavily in a rater’s decision making.

Courts emphasize fairness (whether every employee is treated the same) rather than effectiveness (whether employees are treated equally badly or equally well).

Protected Groups in Evaluation

Litigation by minority groups that have been terminated is most often brought against trait-based systems, as certain traits might be asked for that are more associated with privileged groups.

What is staffing? - Chapter 6

6.1 Conceptual Issues

The Staffing Process

Staffing decisions are those associated with recruiting, selecting, promoting and separating employees. The staffing process involves job and need analysis that identifies desired traits. Applicants are identified and given a preliminary assessment in which their resumes are looked over and perhaps an initial interview is conducted. Formal assessments then occur, with structured interviews and other tests. A predictive, preliminary decision is made to keep the applicant on file or not, a final decision by a manager is made, and finally, administrative procedures like background checks are conducted.

Staffing Practices and Performance

High performance work practices involve formal job analysis, selection from within for key positions, merit-based promotions, and the use of formal assessment devices for selection.

Stakeholders

Managers

Line managers are actively involved in most staffing decisions and tend to seek an accurate, easy staffing process.

Peers (Co-Workers)

Co-workers also have a stake in staffing decisions whether the co-worker hired will be a peer or a subordinate. If the hiree is not good at their job, this will make more work for the co-worker. Workers also have a stake in hiring good supervisors.

Prospective Workers

Applicants are, of course, also stakeholders. They seek an unbiased process that allows them to demonstrate their potential, timely feedback, and sensitive personal treatment.

International Staffing

Job descriptions are used around the globe, educational qualifications are often required. Collectivist countries tend to prefer objective methods and try more often to verify candidate information while individualist countries take a personal approach. Countries higher in uncertainty avoidance administer more tests.

6.2 Evaluating Outcomes

Validity in Outcome

The most common validity designs are criterion-related, content-related, and construct-related. Criterion-related validity is an approach that is demonstrated by correlating a test score with a performance measure which improves the researcher’s confidence in the inference that people with higher test scores have higher performance.

Selection Ration (SR)

The selection ration (SR) is an index ranging from 0 to 1 that reflects the ratio of positions to applicants and is calculated by dividing the number of positions available by the number of applicants. Therefore low selection ratios are better than high selection ratios, because the more applicants, the more chance of high-scorers.

Cut Scores and Errors in Prediction

A false positive error is when a decision is made in which an applicant is accepted even though they performed poorly. This happens when a positive outcome is incorrectly predicted. A false negative error is the opposite of this, when a negative outcome is wrongly predicted. A true negative is accurate – a prediction that a poor performer will perform poorly. The same is the case with a true positive. Raising the cut score (the cutoff), the specified point in a distribution below which candidates are rejected, would lead to fewer false positives but more false negatives. Lowering the cut score would have the opposite effect. Usually, something in the middle is preferred. However, for dangerous jobs that require high skill and minimized mistakes, a high cut score might be important, even if more false negatives are inevitable.

Establishing Cut Scores

Criterion-referenced cut scores (domain-referenced cut scores) are established by thinking about the desired performance level of a new hire and finding the test score that corresponds with that performance level. Another method is the norm-referenced cut score, which is established by looking at an index of test takers’ scores rather than looking at job performance. This is similar to school grading systems. Norm-referenced cut scores do worse in litigation than criterion-referenced scores because the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures require that cut scores should be comparable with expected levels of job performance.

Utility

Beyond the validity of staffing procedures, their utility is also paramount. If the cost outweighs the gain, it is a useless procedure. Staffing procedures are also less useful when the number of candidates is close to the number of jobs. If the job doesn’t actually require amazing performance, it would be useless to use any special measure of performance. Finally, if the base rate of workers that is already performing successfully is high, then no new procedures are necessary.

Utility analysis is a technique that assesses the economic return on investment of human resource interventions like staffing and training.

Dynamic Validities

Dynamic criteria occur when there are changes in the levels of performance on any given criterion dimensions. These might be random variations or actual performance differences. Validities might also change, as jobs change form and the skills associated with them shift.

6.3 Practical Issues

Staffing Model

High-quality staffing decisions are based on a number of different factors and attributes, meaning that the combining of information about candidates is important in order for good staffing decisions to be made.

Comprehensive Selection

A comprehensive staffing model is one that gathers a good deal of high-quality information about the applicant. It uses this information to predict the likelihood of success on the varied demands of the position. It should predict both technical and OCB performance.

Compensatory Selection

Compensatory selection involves looking at KSAOs that interact to yield successful performance. Essentially, what skills and attributes compensate for a person’s weaknesses, and improve their general performance in unexpected ways.

Synthesizing Information

Clinical vs. Statistical Decisions

Clinical decision making involves the use of personal judgement to make a decision and combine information about the relative value of different applicants. These tend to be unreliable and highly subjective. Statistical decision making, on the other hand, combines information using a mathematical formula.

The Hurdle System

A hurdle system is when a person must first achieve a certain cut score on one test before they are allowed the opportunity to continue to a later stage. If they pass the hurdle, they might be placed in a compensatory system in which a high score on one test can compensate for a low score on another test. When there are several dimensions that warrant minimum hurdle scores, there may be a multiple hurdle system. If the applicant doesn’t succeed each minimum dimension, they may not continue further. Hurdles will often be sequential. The more expensive or time consuming the hurdle, the later in the sequence. When there are few positions and many applicants, this can be a good system.

The Compensatory Approach

Multiple regression analysis results in an equation that combines test scores, based on individual correlations among each test score dimension with performance score, and inter-correlations between these. This is a complex mathematical technique that requires both predictor data and criterion data so can only be used if those measures are present. Furthermore, to make sure the gathered information is valid on other tests, cross-validation must occur. This is a process used with multiple regression techniques in which a regression equation developed on a first sample is tested on a second sample to determine if it still fits well.

The Score Banding Method

The score banding method involves grouping individuals with similar scores into a category (a score band). Selection within the band is then made based on other considerations. Of course, many candidates within a score band are barely different from one another in score. The standard error of measurement (SEM) provides a measure of the amount of error in a test score distribution: a function of the reliability of the test and the variability in test scores.

The Subgroup Norming Approach

Subgroup norming is an approach that develops separate lists for individuals of different demographic groups and then ranks candidates within their own group. This is illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1991.

Selection and Placement

It is often the case that more than one position needs to be filled at a given time. This means that staffing decisions become more complex as the organization must place an individual, not just select and individual. There are three main strategies in which this can be done:

Vocational: The candidate is placed according to their talents.

Selection: Each job is filled with the most qualified person.

Cut and fit: Each job is filled with adequate talent.

The cut and fit strategy and the vocational strategy help ensure that each position is filled with a good candidate, while regular selection might be problematic as the best person for one position might also be the best person for another.

Deselection and Termination

Termination for cause occurs when an individual is let go because of a behavior they have been warned about that they have not changed. This is easy because every involved party is aware of the situation. Layoffs, however, often come without warning and involve making a decision between good and great. They tend to be emotional and tough decisions, meaning that the staffing strategy must be clear and reasonable. In this case, statistical decision making is the better option. It is also better to make the decision based on multiple criteria. The strategy needs to be coherent, consistent and balanced.

Amount of Decisions

Large Projects

Sometimes the amount of applicants is large, and the amount of positions that need to be filled is also large. In cases like these, concessions must be made. Some selection procedures take too much time and attention to administer in such a large group. This means that an actuarial decision is needed, rather than a clinical one. Utility can be an issue – testing many people can be costly. However, if the validity is high enough the costs might be worth it. Fairness is also a considerable issue, as some devices meant to cut down the pool of candidates can be discriminatory against protected groups.

Small Projects

In small-scale hiring projects, such as the hiring of 1 employee out of 5 applicants for a local chef position, there is more room for time-consuming measures. Even with a small number of applicants, an actuarial decision is recommended over a clinical one. Recommendations for small-scale projects include developing a justification of the job-relatedness of tests on judgement and rationality, considering cost-utility when choosing measures, making sure every candidate is subjected to the same procedures, and using methods of I-O psychology where possible.

21^stCentury

Core elements in a new, contemporary staffing model include a global mindset, adaptability, cultural agility, and relationship management. The term used for this more contextual way of viewing the worker is ‘in situ performance’. A new model should involve an assessment of predictors over a longer period (weeks) rather than a one-shot test. The assessment should involve a more realistic environment, and performance information should be used more often in prediction than tests.

6.4 Legal Issues

Employment Discrimination

I-O psychologists are most commonly involved in employee discrimination suits as expert witnesses, who are permitted to voice opinions about organizational practices. Employee discrimination charges result from decisions about who will be hired, promoted, or laid off. The consequences of a lawsuit against a company can lead to large, costly settlements. Lawyers get a significant amount of money from these settlements, giving them further motivation to encourage their clients to sue.

Discrimination Outside of the USA

While most industrialized countries have laws about employment discrimination, the protected groups may vary. There are also different enforcement mechanisms for those laws that in some countries are stricter than others. The USA has specific and well-defined laws, and a developed enforcement mechanism.

Discrimination Theories

Adverse Treatment

Adverse (disparate) treatment is a type of discrimination in which the plaintiff tries to demonstrate how the employer treated them differently than the majority of applicants. For instance, if the plaintiff can convince the jury that they were passed over in favor of a preferred group because of their age, race, sexual orientation, gender, religion, or disability, they will win the case.

Adverse Impact

Adverse impact is a type of discrimination that acknowledges that while the employer may not have intended to discriminate, the organizational practices did have an adverse impact on the group to which the plaintiff belongs. A case like this is made by demonstrating statistical disparities in outcomes between groups. The plaintiff must show that they belong to the protected group and that members of the group are statistically disadvantaged in the company. The 80% (4/5ths) rule indicates that adverse impact begins if the protected group receives less than 80% of the outcomes of the majority group. To determine this, the adverse impact ratio is calculated. This involves dividing the selection ratio of the protected group by the selection ratio of the majority group.

What are the different aspects of training? - Chapter 7

7.1 Foundations

Training and Performance

Evidence shows that training is effective and that money invested in training programs tends to be returned in higher productivity and employee performance. Since training is useful for both the employee and the organization, it can be used as a way to attract and retain successful employees. Training is the systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, and attitudes that results in improved performance. It involves the process of learning, a permanent change in behavior and human capabilities produced by experience and practice. There are three main types of learning outcomes:

1. Cognitive: the development of declarative knowledge (rules, facts, principles).

2. Skill-based: the development of motor or technical skills.

3. Affective: The development of attitudes and beliefs that predispose a person to act in a certain way.

Learning is meant to improve on-the-job performance, actions relevant to the organization’s goals.

Analyzing Where Training Is Needed

There is a three-step process called training needs analysis by which organizations determine what, and who, needs to be taught.

1. Organizational Analysis: examining the goals of the organization, the resources at hand, and the environment in order to see where training resources should be funneled. There should be an appropriate amount of peer and supervisor support for the training so that it is consistently applied.

2. Task Analysis: analyzing what employees need to perform a job properly and successfully. This involves determining the KSAOs needed for a job, developing task statements, and determining task clusters. It can also include an assessment of necessary competencies required for the workplace.

3. Person Analysis: identifying which individuals in an organization should receive a given training. These can involve an assessment of personality, ability, and experience.

The Learning Process

Characteristics of Trainees

An important characteristic of a trainee is trainee readiness, a measure of whether a trainee has the personal characteristics necessary to learn and apply information given during a training program. “G” has been found to be predictive in training outcomes. It is usually more effective if the trainee group is of a similar level, so that high performers are not bored and low performers are not struggling.

Performance Orientation vs. Mastery Orientation

The goal orientation of a trainee is also important. A performance goal orientation means that an individual is concerned with being positively evaluated in training. They want to do well, but see themselves as somewhat fixed in skill level so do not focus on learning. They tend to be highly sensitive to feedback. On the other hand, people with a mastery orientation want to increase their own competence. They see mistakes as learning opportunities. They are flexible and tend to be good at learning dynamic tasks and making complex decisions. Mastery orientation is essential for general motivation towards learning.

Experience Level and Training

Inexperienced, low-ability trainees tend to gain more from long, structured training programs. Experienced, high-ability trainees learn more from short, less structured training programs. People with negative experiences tend to benefit more from related training, likely because they have a personalized view of their own deficiencies in the area in which they will be trained. Error management training involves integrating errors into the training process to improve later performance. This tends to also increase self-regulation following the training.

Trainee Motivation

Trainee motivation is the degree to which the trainee wants to be trained. An individual with high motivation and a mastery orientation is more likely to have positive trainee outcomes. An expectancy framework is an approach in which employees’ expectations about how much effort they will have to expend and how much their performance impacts their motivation and learning. Individual learning styles are also important to consider in training development, as some people prefer to learn auditoraly, visually, or kinesthetically.

Learning and Motivation

In the 1950’s, B.F. Skinner’s developed a theory of reinforcement and learning. Positive reinforcement occurs when a desired behavior is followed by a reward that increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. This may come in the form of a prize, attention, or even career opportunities. Cognitive learning theories focus on how individuals process and interpret information, beyond simple behavioral reinforcement. Social learning theory is one of these. It proposes that there are a number of ways to learn including learning by observing other people perform a task, mentally rehearsing their behavior, and finally trying out the behavior oneself. The largest effects of behavioral modeling have been found on declarative and procedural knowledge. Some techniques involve demonstrating positive behaviors, rehearsing behaviors in role-playing exercises, receiving feedback, and trying out the behavior on-the-job.

Self-Efficacy, Goal-Setting, and Feedback

Social learning theory includes self-efficacy. This is the belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task to reach a goal. This enhances motivation, learning and performance. An increase in self-efficacy can be achieved by providing the trainee with detailed information about the upcoming training, reducing threats by emphasizing learning and diminishing performance outcomes, providing the trainee with examples of successful peers, and helping the trainee develop better learning strategies (like memory aids). Goal setting can also strengthen motivation. Outcomes can be increased by providing clear, short-term goals for the training program, short-term goals for the immediate application of the new skills learned, and long-term goals that focus on continued mastery and use of the things learned in training. Feedback, information about the results of one’s actions, also enhances learning and performance in training and in the workplace.

Principles of Learning

Active practice is the active participation in training tasks, rather than just watching someone else perform the task. Active practice has positive effects on actual job performance. Skills need to be practiced beyond the point of perfection, rehearsed even after they have been mastered. Overlearning in this way results in automaticity, allowing the individual to perform the task without paying attention. This is critical in jobs where the task is not often performed but that must be performed correctly (such as emergency tasks performed by pilots).

Fidelity

How close a trained task is to the actual task required in a job is called task fidelity. Physical fidelity is how much the training-task mirrors the physical aspects of the job-task, and psychological fidelity is how much the training-task develops the KSAOs necessary for the job-task. High-fidelity simulators tend to be expensive while low-fidelity simulators may still be effective in training KSAOs.

Whole Learning and Part Learning

Whole Learning is an approach in which the entire task, start to finish, is practiced at one time. Part learning is an approach in which a task is split into several sub-tasks which are practiced separately and combined later. Which one is chosen depends on how hard the task is and how related the subtasks are. Complex tasks with interrelated subtasks are better learned whole. However, if complex tasks have unrelated subtasks, part learning is more appropriate. Part learning can be useful to do before a round of whole learning. Master the hard parts before trying to master the whole task.

Massed and Distributed Practice

Massed practice conditions involve continuous practice, without rest in between. Distributed practice has rest intervals between practice sessions, spaced over a longer period of time. Distributed practice tends to lead to more efficient learning and retention. Highly complex skills tend to benefit from longer rest periods between training sessions. A good example of this is when people cram for a university exam instead of studying along the way. They often get lower grades on the exam and retain very little of the course information later on.

Organizations that Emphasize Learning

Learning organizations are companies that focus on problem solving, innovation, the development of knowledge-generation and sharing systems, flexibility, and experimentation, encouraging flexibility and employee development, and encouraging employees to take every opportunity to learn. These organizations tend to be successful – some of them also provide corporate universities that focus on specific business needs.

7.2 Content and Methods

Methods

The most effective training methods present relevant content and information, demonstrate KSAOs, create opportunities to practice new skills, and provide feedback to trainees.

On-Site

On-the-job training assigns trainees to jobs and encourages them to observe and learn from more experienced employees. It is necessary, but may be less effective than possible if done in an unsystematic way. One form of on-the-job training is an apprenticeship, a formal program that teaches a skilled trade (like bricklaying or plumbing). 61% of organizations involve 2-5 year apprenticeships. These combine on-the-job instruction with a number of classroom hours. From an apprenticeship, the student graduates to a journeyman, after which they eventually become a certified skill tradesperson. A successful program involves modeling, practice, feedback, and evaluation.

Job rotation is another on-the-job method, which involves moving employees to departments of the company in which they can develop a wider range of skills than they would while doing a single job. The rotation might involve a certain amount of months in each different job. This can be a way to determine where the employee will be most useful within the organization, and can also promote decision-making and problem-solving skills across situations.

Off-Site

Off-site training often comes in the form of classroom lectures, which present a large amount of information to a large number of trainees. These tend to be supplemented with class discussion and other learning methods. Programmed instruction is an approach in which trainees are given either written or computer-based forms that positively reinforce them as they move through training material at their own pace. This is cost-effective, but works best if immediate feedback occurs after good and bad answers. Linear programming is a type of programmed instruction in which all trainees follow the same course. Branching programming is an approach customized for the individual learner based on what they had most difficulty with when the information was first presented.

Simulators are teaching tools that mimic the on-the-job situation, reproducing important characteristics of the real world and skills that can be directly applied. For instance, a practice dummy in CPR training, or an airplane flight simulator. These are helpful for developing motor skills in a safe environment, and developing management and decision-making skills. They are controlled, safe, use effective learning principles like active practice and feedback, and can be low-cost in the long run. Fidelity is important to consider.

Distance Learning

Distance learning involves the use of interactive media like audio and video instruction. It can be cost efficient, practical, and tailored to the individual. I-O research into distance learning is still in its infancy. Blended learning is an approach that uses distance learning in combination with face-to-face learning. Computer-based training, like distance learning, involves the use of materials on the computer that teach job-relevant knowledge and skills. It is important that this type of training is as interactive as possible, and uses multiple methods of delivery. Trainees gain more control over their learning situation with distance learning and computer-based learning, which can be an advantage if they use it wisely. Adaptive guidance is an instructional approach that helps trainees use distance programs effectively, helping them interpret past performance and determining what they should study to improve future performance.

Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking skills are important in preparing for tests, decision-making and adaptability. They require active involvement in the application of principles taught. People with critical thinking skills question what they are taught and try to apply new ideas to new problems.

Transferring Training

Transfer of training is how much trainees can apply what they have learned to their daily working lives. A transfer of training climate is a workplace with characteristics that might either encourage or discourage the transfer of training to job situations. Both horizontal and vertical transfer are important; horizontal transfer is transfer across settings and contexts at one level of the organization, while vertical transfer spans across different levels of the organization (like teams and departments). A positive transfer of training climate involves an emphasis on the importance of training, a continuous learning culture, social support, opportunities to apply new skills, access to resources, good working conditions, and regular positive reinforcement.

7.3 Evaluation of Training Programs

Criteria

Evaluating training programs is essential, not only in saving costs if a training program is ineffectual, but also in honing and fine-tuning good programs to make them great. Kirkpatrick’s model of training criteria includes four levels:

1. Reaction criteria measure trainee impressions of the training.

2. Learning criteria assess how much trainees learned, often measured with a written test.

3. Behavioral criteria measure how well the new behavior learned in the training transfers to the actual job.

4. Results criteria measure how well training is related to organizational outcomes.

The first two are internal criteria, which focus on the content of the training program, while the second two are external criteria that focus on changes in the workplace itself.

Utility Analysis of Training Programs

Utility analysis is the technique used to assess the economic return on an investment into human resources interventions like training. The benefits of a training program are related to how many people are trained, how large a difference in job performance there is after training, the length of time training will impact performance, and how variable job performance is in those who are not trained.

Designs for Evaluations

Training evaluation designs determine whether improvement objectives have been met and whether these actually result from training. The best training evaluation designs involve random assignment, a control group, and measures obtained before and after the training. One such design is a pretest-posttest control group design. Good training evaluation designs tend to be hard to implement in an organization, because evaluation is difficult when a training program is interrupted by organizational events, or a control group might not be possible. So, when the best form of training evaluation is not possible, the I-O psychologist must work with what is available and choose the best design for their given situation.

Equal Opportunity Testing

Age discrimination is a recent concern in training, as the number of employees over 40 is larger than before. If not given equal access to training and development programs, older employees may sue for age discrimination.

To manage employee development while avoiding discrimination, organizations can provide development opportunities that are allocated on an age-neutral basis, and encourage all employees to participate. Workshops can teach managers about age stereotyping and job relevant criteria should always be used for HR decisions.

7.4 Specialized Training

Management and Leadership

Development is the formal education, job experiences, mentoring relationships, and assessments of personality and abilities that help employees prepare for the future. Managers and leaders are essential to most businesses. Various tools have been used for leader development (the improvement of an individual leader’s KSAOs) and leadership development (the improvement of a leader’s social skills).

Assessment

Assessment centers are procedures used to evaluate a group of individuals. They usually involve multiple assessors and are a type of leadership development tool. Studies have shown conflicting results about assessment centres, some seeing their influence as low, others as high.

360-Degree Feedback

360-degree feedback involves collecting and providing a manager with feedback from multiple sources. Anonymity is key in these situations – raters are more likely to be open and honest while recipients are more open to receiving anonymous feedback.

Coaching Method

Coaching is an important part of leadership development because it is practical, goal-focused, one-on-one learning. A coach works with an employee on skill development and is able to be flexible and directed. Coaches may be internal or externally hired. Four major activities in any coaching relationship are:

• Data gathering

• Feedback

• Intervention

• Evaluation

The most important characteristics of a good coach are psychological training, business understanding, listening skills, professionalism, and an established reputation as a good coach. There is a need for an evidence-based approach to coaching. While it is high-cost, it might be worth it for essential employees at high levels of management.

Informal and On-the-job Training

Informal training experiences manifest as job assignments, experiences, and activities outside work. Learning from on-the-job experience is a continuous, long-term process that may involve failure. It can be a critical component of development.

Training to Prevent Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome sexual advances and other sexual behavior that, when submitted to or rejected, explicitly or implicitly affects employment, interferes with an individual’s performance, or creates a hostile work environment. For instance, quid pro quo sexual harassment involves direct requests for sexual favors in return for promotions or keeping one’s job. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) encourages organizations to enforce a zero-tolerance policy on sexual harassment, establish an effective complaint process, and take immediate action when an employee complains. Many organizations conduct sexual harassment awareness training programs. These tend to be effective in increasing awareness, but no studies have been conducted to determine whether actual sexual harassment behavior went down as a result. One issue is that people who have received sexual harassment awareness training may have misgivings about confronting their harassers as they are more aware of the process involved.

Training for Ethics

Ethics is an increasingly important area of training. While most people agree that organizations should be ethical, the individuals in the organization may be ambivalent towards the ethics of their own behavior.

Training across Cultures

Training has been found to be critical in helping expatriates, employees working abroad, to adapt to their new environments. High turnover with expatriates exists because people often experience culture shock roughly 6 months after they arrive in their new country, becoming irritable, homesick, hostile to nationals, and unable to work effectively. Language training is often offered, as well as cross-cultural training that is designed to prepare individuals to interact more effectively with members of the host culture.

One of the most valid methods of cross-cultural training is a cultural assimilator, a computer-based tool that presents a number of scenarios describing difficult cross-cultural situations and teaching techniques for dealing with them.

A culture-specific assimilator is developed for a particular culture, and a culture-general assimilator is developed to sensitize people to cross-cultural differences among a variety of cultures. An interesting avenue for further development lies in the fact that if the families of the expatriate do not adjust well, turnover increases. Extending cross-cultural training to family members may increase the odds of success.

What is motivation? - Chapter 8

8.1 Introducing Motivation

Motivation in Psychology

Motivation is made up of the conditions that cause variations in the intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior. It is a major avenue of research in many psychological fields, including I-O psychology.

Motivation in I-O Psychology

Early theories of motivation in I-O psychology were based on Freud’s notion of instincts, inborn tendencies thought to direct behaviors. This focus on the internal causes of behavior failed to address environmental issues. Instinct was replaced with terms like need, an internal motivation thought to be inborn and universal. In animals, needs are called drives, such as the drive for thirst. Later, the behaviorist approach of B.F. Skinner placed emphasis on directed activity and behavior taking a directly environmental approach that did not look at internal needs. Broader approaches like Kurt Lewin’s field theory proposed that various forces interact, leading to a resulting course of action. This became known as group dynamics in the industrial world.

Metaphors

Weiner suggested that all of the motivational theories can be described in one of two ways – either the person is seen as a machine or as a scientist.

Machine

Machine theories of motivation see the person as pushed by internal needs and pulled by environmental stimuli. Psychoanalytic theory, animal learning theories, behaviorism, and field theory all support the person-as-machine view.

Scientist

The person-as-scientist view holds that people’s actions are intentional, voluntary, and that people judge the events and actions of others, and develop action plans. They are seen as reflective rather than automatically responsive. Of course, the scientist metaphor views people as perfectly rational, which they are not. The inability to reason perfectly is called limited rationality. People do not make decisions in perfectly rational ways. Recognizing this, a new sub-metaphor has been made, seeing the person also as a judge who perceives and reflects on others and their possible intentions, and applying similar intentions to their own actions.

Motivation in the Workplace

Performance

Motivation’s role in performance can be conceptualized in an equation: performance= (motivation x ability) – situational constraints

If motivation is 0, it doesn’t matter what a person’s abilities are. However, as motivation increases, ability is magnified. Motivation can be about productivity, but also about sabotage and absence.

Work-Life Balance

A person who is overly motivated by work (a workaholic) lacks work-life balance. Seeing motivation as a limited resource, too much motivation spent at work will end up in less motivation for home life and social life. Balance is critical for satisfaction in both areas, especially because both environments have demands that conflict with the other. Early motivational theorists sought to energize people by giving external incentives. Current motivational theory suggests that motivation has little to do with energy and more to do with the balance of work and home life.

Attitudes

Morale is a term that was once commonly used to describe work-related attitudes and job satisfaction, seeing happy workers as productive ones. Motivational models tend to focus on pleasure conditions – solutions to low morale (low motivation) involved making the work-place more pleasant. Attitudes and attitude measurement was seen as the way to identify motivation. More recently, however, goal-setting has also been considered as an area of research.

Personality

Personality factors have been connected to motivation. For example, neuroticism is negatively related to performance motivation and conscientiousness and emotion stability are related to effective goal-setting and confidence in performance. Research into locus of control (LOC), the extent to which a person feels in control of the events in their lives or feels that they are externally caused, has shown relations between LOC and motivation. People with an internal LOC are more motivated because they believe they can affect their environment. Optimism is also related to LOC and motivation.

8.2 Classic Approaches

Machine Theories

Maslow’s Need Theory

Maslow’s need theory proposed that people have basic needs that express themselves over a person’s life span as drives. He identified five categories:

1. Physiological needs: food, water, sleep

2. Security needs: the need for a secure environment free of threats to life.

3. Love/Social needs: the need to be accepted by others.

4. Esteem needs: the need to be respected for accomplishments.

5. Self-actualization: the need to develop one’s capacities to the fullest.

According to Maslow’s theory, a person might seek first to fulfill their basic physiological needs, only working towards the higher needs once the lower needs are fulfilled. This theory fits the machine metaphor well. Some modifications have been made, such as the two-factor theory by Herzberg. This suggests that there are only two needs – hygiene needs (physical and security) and motivator needs (social, esteem, and actualization). He saw hygiene needs as a way to stop dissatisfaction, and motivator needs as a way to seek positive satisfaction. Neither theory has received much attention or support in the more recent times, even though there is evidence of the theories still present in work.

Reinforcement Theory

Maslow’s theory was an internal theory. External machine theories include B.F. Skinner’s reinforcement theory (behaviorism). According to this theory, behavior depends on stimulus (the environmental trigger), response, and reward. The idea is that if a response is rewarded /reinforced, it is more likely to be repeated. When a reward depends on a response, it is called a contingent reward. Rewards that are given intermittently rather than continuously following a response are more effective. Reward systems that use this theory include sales commissions, piecework payment, performance bonuses and other such monetary rewards. These can have positive results, but can also be costly and impractical, especially with the increase in team work and immaterial work involving complex cognitive processes that are not simple to train.

Scientist Theories

VIE Theory

One theory in which the person is seen as a scientist is the path-goal theory of Georgopoulos et al. They suggested that if someone knows productivity is a step in achieving a higher personal goal or reward, they would become more productive, and if low productivity is seen as a step towards goals, the opposite would be true. This is elaborated upon in Vroom’s VIE theory. Vie stands for valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. Vroom saw the environment as consisting of attracting and repelling forces (similar to machine theories, yet recognizing that people have their own cognitive processes).

The three aspects are as follows:

• Valence: How strong a person’s preference for an outcome is.

• Instrumentality: The perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of the desired outcome.

• Expectancy: The belief that a particular behavior will lead to the desired outcome.

The person is seen as calculating. A manager might take advantage of this by positively connecting benefits to outcomes, informing employees about the benefits of an outcome, and letting the employees know how an action might lead to the desired outcome.

Equity Theory

Dissonance theory suggests that when a person has dissonant cognitions, two thoughts about oneself that are not compatible with one another, they tend to seek some sense of balance and direct their behavior towards decreasing the dissonance. Applied to the workplace, this becomes the equity theory, which suggests that individuals look at the world in terms of inputs (training, effort, skills, and abilities) and outcomes (compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits). They compare their inputs and outcomes with those of others – if their input-outcome ration is identical to those of others, there is no tension. However, if it is not, the individual seeks to remedy the issue and works towards equity. Studies show that this is only true when a person feels they are getting less than others – if they are getting more than others, they do not feel the same tension.

8.3 Modern Approaches

Intentional Approaches

Intentional approaches correct for the mistaken assumption that people are rational.

Theory of Goal-Setting

Goal-setting theory involves the adaptation of the goal to work motivation. A goal is seen as a motivational force central to daily life, as people easily explain their behavior in terms of purpose. Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance if the individual accepts the goal as their own. If a goal is easy, the person will underperform and feel less satisfied. Goal acceptance is the assignment of a goal, but goal commitment is when a person makes it personal. Goals have the following effects:

1. Direction: they direct attention and action

2. Effort: they make a person work harder

3. Persistence: they prolong effort over time

4. Strategy: they motivate the person to develop strategies

There is also a feedback loop, the connection between knowledge of the results and the intermediate states between commitment and performance. Essentially, if a person learns about what they did well and what they did poorly, they can make more goals and continue to improve.

Goal Setting and Control Theory

Control theory is based on the idea of the feedback loop – if a person compares a standard to an actual outcome, they can adjust behavior to bring the outcome up to the standard.

Issues Related to Goal-Setting

If high-quantity goals are set, quality declines, and vice-versa. Goals about process may be more helpful for complex tasks that require learning, while goals for outcomes might be better for simple tasks. Setting goals can involve simply assigning them, asking participants to help set them, and asking individuals to set their own goals. Compatible goals are effective, conflicting goals are not. Difficult goals should be rewarded along the way so that people don’t lose motivation, medium goals should be contingent.

Control Theories and Self-Regulation

Control theory, which is based on the feedback loop, deals with the discrepancy between what was actually accomplished vs. what the person was committed to accomplishing. Self-regulation, the process by which people take in information about behavior and adjust or change how they act based on that information, is an integral part of control theory.

The workplace is complex, involving multiple feedback loops. People receive feedback about abilities, performance, and expectations. With this feedback they may change their behavior, experience differing emotions, change their appearance, or even change their self-image. These changes then influence subsequent behavior, which then receives feedback.

Self-Efficacy

As previously mentioned, self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s own capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal. Self-esteem, on the other hand, is the pride that one feels about who they are, influenced somewhat by the respect of others. Seeking self-esteem, rather than experiencing it simply as a result of successful performance, may be destructive. Self-efficacy beliefs are more related to motivation and behavior while self-esteem beliefs are more related to emotions.

Proximal and Distant Goals

Bandura suggests that goals are arranged according to their distance: proximal goals increase self-efficacy, are interesting, and are correlated with distant goals. You can see proximal goals as stepping stones, each which bring one closer to the distant goal of reaching the other side of the stream. Satisfaction and efficacy are higher when a person feels that their actions move them closer to goal completion. Negative evaluation may lead a person to change strategies, abandon their goals, or increasing their effort.

Developing Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is central to goal-directed behavior; Bandura suggested four ways to improve it:

1. Mastery: the more times someone is successful at performing a challenging task, the stronger their self-efficacy beliefs become.

2. Modeling: self-efficacy increases when a person sees someone similar to his/herself succeed at a challenging task.

3. Social persuasion: self-efficacy may increase through the encouragement from others who are confident that the individual will succeed.

4. Physiological states: feeling tired or stress may be misinterpreted as not being able to handle a task. This can be reduced through relaxation exercises.

Action

Action theory (Rubicon theory) broadly considers intention’s role in motivation and the connection between intention and action. There are four phases in active goal pursuit:

1. Pre-decision: analyzing personal desires to see which is the most feasible.

2. Post-decision: planning strategies for action.

3. Action: implementing action strategies.

4. Evaluation: comparing what was achieved to what was desired.

When there are competing desires, recalling our intentions help us establish priorities. Once an intention is formed through the establishment of priorities, no further debate over alternatives is needed.

An action is made up of the action process and the action structure. The action process starts with a goal. Then several alternative plans are thought up to deal with possible future events, one plan is chosen, and is then implemented and monitored. The resulting information is processed and the feedback leads to a new goal. The action structure is the result of prior events and plans, arranged hierarchically. Feedback and action regulation then happen both consciously and automatically.

Themes

Modern approaches to motivation all place high importance on intentional action (goal-directed behavior). Feedback is critical and the person is seen as a scientist, not completely rational, yet analytical and information-seeking.

The Entrepreneur’s Motivation

Introducing entrepreneurial activity in I-O psychology may be important because entrepreneurship and small business is increasingly important in the contemporary economy, and many small businesses are started by women and minorities. Entrepreneurs are different than other people in the workforce, in that they are quick to recognize opportunities due to deep and broad knowledge about an industry. They don’t regret their career choice, are socially skilled, have high self-efficacy, and high perseverance. They set goals and have high achievement motivation, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. They are less agreeable and are willing to tolerate great risk. Research has shown that there may be benefits in encouraging entrepreneurial behaviors among small business owners in third-world countries towards lessening global poverty. A central personality characteristic related to entrepreneurship is entrepreneurial orientation (EO). EO combines personal initiative with achievement orientation and risk-taking orientation.

8.4 Practical Issues

Measuring Motivation

An instrument called the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ) was developed by Kanfer et al. to identify “general” motivation. It measures 6 aspects of motivation:

• Desire to learn

• Mastery

• Other-referenced goals

• Competitiveness

• Worry

• Emotionality

Cross-Cultural Concerns

Across all cultures, employers use four motivational tools:

• Rewarding those who perform at a high level.

• Allowing subordinates to participate in goal setting and decision making.

• Designing and redesigning organizations by changing task assignments.

• Implement quality improvement interventions to focus subordinates on objectives.

How these tools are used varies from culture to culture, depending on their situation on Hofstede’s dimensions.

Generational Differences

There seem to be differences in work values among workers from one generation/cohort to another. For instance, generation X includes people born between 1961 and 1980 and generation Y includes people born between 1980 and 1995. In the workplace, people of the younger generation are the ones that expect to be influenced by changes in the workplace for a longer period of time. It seems that work values also change over life, with work seeming less important and central to a person as they age. Now, in the contemporary workplace, downsizing and unemployment are common enough that people feel less loyal to the companies they work for. Traditional motivational techniques may not work, work-life balance needs to be considered, and if a business wants commitment from employees, they must show their own commitment to their employees.

Interventions

Contingent Reward Systems

Contingent rewards are those that come only as a response to an achievement or good behavior. This may come in the form of money, feedback, social reinforcement, or a combination of the three. This has a strong effect on a number of task-related behaviors.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is a motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs to increase the employee’s motivation and job satisfaction. In scoring a job on its level of motivating potential, five characteristics are looked at:

• The variety of skills required.

• The extent to which the task has a complete identity (beginning, middle, and end) and can be meaningfully understood in relation to other tasks.

• How much autonomy and control an individual has over schedules and procedures.

• How significant a task is perceived within the organization.

• The amount of feedback the task itself provides about performance.

ProMES: Productivity Measurement Enhancement System

ProMES is a productivity improvement plan which defines productivity as how well a system uses its resources to achieve its goals. The system involves both workers and managers in making productivity improvement plans. A task team identifies objectives and indicators (quantitative measures) of how well objectives are being met. Studies have shown that ProMES largely improves productivity with results that last for years and whose effects can be seen cross-culturally among numerous organizations.

What is job satisfaction? - Chapter 9

9.1 Satisfaction

Emotion at Work

Work, being a large part of most people’s daily life, involves a great deal of emotions. Emotions experienced at work impact both work and non-work behavior. The opposite is also true.

History of Job Satisfaction Research

Early Research

Elton Mayo in the mid 1920’s suggested that factory work made people angry, fearful, suspicious, decreased performance and increased illness. This surprised people as they assumed that simply being paid well enough should ensure good will. Job satisfaction is an individual’s positive attitude or emotional state resulting from one’s appraisal of one’s job and job experience. Job-related and individual differences both contribute to differences in satisfaction. In the late 1920’s, at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric, research was conducted to see how the physical environment of the workplace influenced productivity. The study found what is now known as the Hawthorne Effect, that behavior and attitudes change as the result of increased attention.

Between 1935 and 1955, job satisfaction research was active because it was believed that job satisfaction impacted productivity and the number of worker strikes resulting from labor unrest. In the late 1950’s, some research found that job satisfaction didn’t actually improve performance, leading to Herzberg’s two-factor theory of hygiene and motivator needs.

Evolving Ideas

An evolution in ideas about motivation occurred when people began to take a person-as-scientist view of motivation. Locke introduced the value theory of job satisfaction in the 1970’s, proposing that the relative importance of a particular job aspect to a given worker influences the range of a worker’s responses to it. Satisfaction then rests on the aspects of the workplace you value as an individual.

Antecedents of Job Satisfaction

Antecedents for job satisfaction (what aspects of work are necessary to ensure job satisfaction) include conditions like how challenging the work is (+), how physically demanding (-), how personally interesting (+), how just the reward structure is (+), whether physical needs are met (+) and whether there are conditions that help one attain goals. High self-esteem raises job satisfaction, as do colleagues and supervisors who help one gain rewards or have a similar perspective. If the organization has a policy that helps the employee gain rewards, and if it has a management policy that is neither conflicting nor ambiguous, satisfaction is also positively impacted. Interestingly, fringe benefits do not do much to influence satisfaction. Additional variables in the contemporary workplace include a rising concern for job security, the extent to which a company seems to be time urgent, how often jobs are changed, perceived discrimination, attitudes towards other cultures, and satisfaction with new production models.

Consequences of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction tends to lead to fewer on-the-job injuries and less absenteeism. Customer satisfaction, productivity, profit, and safety go up, while turnover decreases. Job satisfaction can positively influence organizational citizenship behavior as well as general life satisfaction. When a business is successful, employees tend to feel more secure and feel more overall satisfaction with their jobs.

Measuring Job Satisfaction

Overall and Facet Satisfaction Information

Overall satisfaction is an assessment that can either result from a calculation of scores based on satisfaction with specific important aspects of a job, or a single overall rating of the job. Some situations call for simply an overall score, while for others it is useful to obtain facet information.

Satisfaction Questionnaires

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is one of the most researched and documented job satisfaction instruments. It assesses five areas of work:

• The work itself

• Supervision

• People

• Pay

• Promotion

It also includes a scale called Job in General (JIG). The JDI has confirmed reliability and validity. In cases where there is a question mark, the JDI is scored negatively, since no answer is more often than not a slightly negative answer.

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is shorter, with only five questions per area, measuring more refined aspects of work like achievement, ability utilization. It also allows for the calculation of an intrinsic satisfaction score, related to what the individual does at work, and an extrinsic satisfaction score, which relates to external things like pay and benefits. The Job Satisfaction Survey was developed to measure overall satisfaction only.

Commitment

Commitment is a person’s mental and emotional attachment to a relationship, an organization, a goal, or an occupation. Organizational commitment includes three main elements:

• Belief and acceptance of the organization’s values

• Willingness to exert effort to help the organization achieve its goals.

• Desire to remain in the organization.

Forms of Commitment

The three forms of organizational commitment are:

• Affective commitment - emotional attachment

• Continuance commitment - perceived cost of leaving the organization

• Normative commitment - obligation to remain with the organization

Different scales have been used to measure commitment, including the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). Occupational commitment is defined as the commitment one has to an occupational field, which includes the three forms listed above. Both organizational and occupational commitment are relevant here.

Occupational commitment has two main dimensions: the practical and emotional costs of changing occupations, and the extent to which opportunities are available in the current occupation. If the costs are high and the opportunities low, commitment will be higher.

A meta-analysis of research in commitment has resulted in as many as 24 types of commitment. Included in these are team commitment and project commitment. A new term, job embeddedness, is used to describe the many types of commitment individuals feel towards co-workers, teams, organizations and careers.

Individual Difference Variables

Research has suggested that absenteeism and turnover should be understood in relation to many forms of commitment and foundations of commitment. The longer an individual stays with an organization, the more committed they tend to become, likely because they have more social ties and more benefits from the organization. Organizational commitment in people over 30 tends to be related to job security while for people under 30 it tends to be related to the opportunity to develop new skills and be paid according to performance. Some people are more prone to change jobs than others (this has been termed hobo syndrome). This is possibly due to either negativity that leads them to seek better opportunities, or to a weaker commitment foundation.

Organizational Identification

Organizational identification (OID) is when employees develop a sense of pride from their organizational association. Low organizational identification is when employees try to distance themselves from their organizational association. OID is rooted in social identity theory, which proposes that people seek self-esteem, that groups play a role in self-concept, and that people seek to maintain a positive social identity by making preferential distinctions about their own in-group. People seek to identify with an organization as a way to bolster self-esteem. They put themselves in a good light by finding what elements of themselves they can be proud of. This includes organizational affiliation. Kreiner and Ashforth suggest four variations of OID:

• Identification

• Disidentification

• Ambivalent Identification: selectively identifying/disidentifying

• Neutral Identification: aggressively neutral

Green initiatives that attract young workers whose values coincide tend to lead to lower turnover, likely because of higher OID. A leader’s OID has been related to the OID of his/her subordinates. Overidentification, however, may have negative consequences, like unethical behavior, commitment to a failed project, and suppressing dissent.

Small paragraph on ‘employee engagement’

9.2 Moods, Emotions, Behavior, Attitudes.

The Importance of Happiness

Interestingly, while it may seem like most people are somewhat dissatisfied with their jobs, the opposite is true. A minority of about 12% of workers are dissatisfied. There has also been low correlation found between job satisfaction and performance, no matter what managers tend to think.

Resigned Work Satisfaction

Bruggemann et al. suggest that there may be many forms of work satisfaction, correlated with different work behaviors. As such, a general job satisfaction score may be an inaccurate way to assess the situation. Some alternative forms include:

• Progressive work satisfaction: the individual is satisfied, aspires towards even more, and may feel creatively dissatisfied.

• Stabilized work satisfaction: the individual is satisfied and motivated to maintain their current state. Aspiration is directed to other areas of life.

• Resigned work satisfaction: indistinct satisfaction, lessening the level of aspiration to adapt to negative aspects of the work, allowing them to remain satisfied.

• Constructive work dissatisfaction: the dissatisfied worker tries to master their situation with problem-solving and tolerance.

• Fixated work dissatisfaction: the dissatisfied worker maintains a level of aspiration and does not try to master the situation. Frustrated tolerance requires defense mechanisms and problems do not feel solvable.

• Pseudo-work satisfaction: the dissatisfied worker faces unsolvable problems and maintains their level of aspiration because of achievement motivation, social norms, distorted perception, or denial of the situation.

These rely on the difference between what a person wants and what they get, changes in goal aspiration levels due to work, and a person’s coping strategy. Resigned work satisfaction and constructive work dissatisfaction are important for organizations to watch out for. Constructively dissatisfied people are great to engage in organizational change efforts. Resignedly satisfied people are not helpful in these situations – this attitude can be prevented by intervening before people reach that point. Each of the six forms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction listed here require a different approach.

Satisfaction, Mood and Emotion

Weiss et.al. believe that focusing on discrepancies between desired outcomes and actual outcomes may be missing the point a bit. Moods, emotions, and attitudes should also be recognized. They suggest a focus on stressful events, interactions with supervisors and peers, and the effect of the office setting. Moods are defined as generalized states of feeling, not identified with a particular stimulus and not intense enough to interrupt ongoing cognitions. Emotions are defined as effects or feelings experienced in reaction to an event or thought, intense enough to interrupt thought processes, and accompanied by physiological changes.

Moods may be positive or negative, emotions may be more complex. The affect circumplex is an arrangement of emotions positioned so that they are in a circle, directly opposite what is considered the countering emotion. These opposite emotions are also modified by the degree of activation and the degree of pleasantness. Process emotions result from consideration of the task one is currently doing. Prospective emotions result from a consideration of the tasks one anticipates doing. Retrospective emotions result from considering what you have already done.

Dispositions and Affectivity

Dispositions tend to be thought of as personality traits. Negative affectivity, which is related to neuroticism, means being prone to negative mood states like anxiety, depression, hostility, and guilt. Positive affectivity, which is related to extraversion, means being prone to cheerfulness, enthusiasm, confidence, activity, and energy. Job satisfaction is positively correlated with positive affectivity, probably because a good mood makes everything seem more pleasant. Besides disposition, a person's mood is influenced by their experiences and environment. A negative outlook might come from a negative environment. It might then make the environment more negative in turn.

Emotional Experience and Time

The relationship between job satisfaction and work behavior has generally been examined using a between-person design. However, an individual's emotions fluctuate a great deal over time, even within the course of a day. In measuring job satisfaction only once, it becomes assumed that it is a stable thing. Measuring one individual's job satisfaction at different points in time would be a within-person design. Weiss and Cropanzano made a framework called the Affective Events Theory to explain daily events that impact mood and emotion. Preliminary results suggest that negative environmental events affect mood 5 times more than their positive counterparts, though the positive is more frequently reported. Positive experiences reduce fatigue and increase well-being. Counterproductive work behavior actually happens more as a result of a bad mood rather than an overall, stable trait. Stressed out employees benefit more from relaxation and mastery experiences after work. Insomnia contributes to negative emotions at work. The negative effect of a broken promise from an employer on mood is much greater than the positive effect of a kept promise. Finally, more positive emotions are felt when talking to supervisors.

Genetics

Emotional experience might be influenced by genetics. The effect of disposition on mood should not be underestimated. Subjective well-being, which includes job satisfaction, is across-the-board correlated to disposition. There is reason to believe that dispositions are somewhat influenced by genetics.

Core Self-Evaluations

Core self-evaluations are assessments that individuals make about their circumstances, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the absence or presence of neuroticism. Core self-evaluation measures taken in childhood have been found to roughly predict job satisfaction in adulthood. Those with positive core self-evaluations more commonly translate early advantages into later economic success. Objective reality is again proven to be less important than previously thought. Subjective reality (perceptions) is highly impactful. The longitudinal studies also show that the traits on the core self-evaluation measures are relatively stable over time. This fact may also be generalizable across cultures.

Withdrawal

Withdrawal is a construct that includes behaviors. like tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover. Work withdrawal is an attempt by an individual to withdraw from work while maintaining ties to the organization and work role. Job withdrawal is a willingness to sever ties to the organization itself and to the work role. Sometimes these two occur as progression, and the progression hypothesis suggests that this characterizes the long process of withdrawal.

9.3 Other Issues Related to Emotions

Losing Your Job

Job loss, in that it is an involuntary removal from an entity (an organization) that one has committed to, can be as devastating as divorce. It has a real psychological impact as well - an unemployed person experiences worse mental health for their period of unemployment, often becoming depressed, insomniac, irritable, lacking in confidence, unable to concentrate, and generally anxious. Income reduces as well as the goal-setting structure and variety of a daily work life. Social interaction diminishes, along with status, activity, and purposes.

The first period of unemployment is typically right after school, when people seek their first job. This is a different experience than losing one's job, in that a full-time career has not yet begun and nothing is lost. Comparing unemployed graduates with full-time workers, it was found that their self-esteem, optimism, and locus of control scored lower.

Telecommuting

As the nature of work changes, telecommuting (working from a distant location using electronic communication media) is increasingly common. I-O psychologists have only begun to look at this part of work. The possible negative effects of telecommuting include the alienation of the worker as they lose face-to-face interactions with their employer, a diminished capacity to identify with the job and the organization, and a diminished likelihood of promotion opportunities. The type of person needed for successful telecommuting will be an ambitious and conscientious person, but that ambition will lead to disillusionment with the lack of promotion. The upside is that people feel a significant increase in work autonomy, lessened work-family conflict, performance increases, turnover decreases, and lessened stress. It can, however, harm coworker relationships. Limiting telecommuting to 1 or 2 days a week maximizes job satisfaction from working at home. Telecommuting may be more beneficial for men than women, probably due to women’s greater domestic responsibilities.

Work-Family

Non-work life tends to mainly involve family time. The balance between work life and home life is important for both psychological and physical health. Research into this work-family balance concentrates on where it is lacking. One influence on work-family balance is the organization’s outlook on child care, and whether they provide child-care services. Most importantly is the number of hours worked; when people have been working longer hours and their extra energy is expended on work, this can negatively affect the work-family balance.

Electronic communications connect us to a job all the time, so that even in our off-hours we may not be able to turn ourselves off of work. It has been thought that people with multiple roles (an employed woman who is also a caregiver) might experience fewer degrees of freedom, more responsibility, and greater stress. In fact, this is not the case, as multiple roles actually enhance well-being. Success in one area can make failures in another role less salient. Income increases standard of living, social support increases, opportunities for success are more available, and spouses can balance their roles more easily with each other. Multiple roles let people achieve long-term emotional balance and learn new, more complex social and cognitive skills.

Making Psychological Contracts

Psychological contracts are the way people interpret the terms of an exchange agreement between themselves and an organization. People might agree to accept certain commitments and then make plans according to those. The psychological contract is an implicit understanding. A breach of this contract might occur if an employee believes the employer has failed to fulfill their promises. This lowers organizational trust and leads to higher levels of absenteeism.

A meta-analysis has examined the influence of a psychological contract breach and shown that it can mainly have three areas of outcome: affect (mistrust), attitudes (job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover), and performance (turnover, OCB, and in-role performance).

Cross-Cultural Issues

Research findings suggest that individualism and job satisfaction are positively correlated in some countries while collectivism and job satisfaction are positively correlated in other countries. A “warm” social work atmosphere is related to collectivism. The key in organizational psychology is how well employees fit with their organizations. Cultural values can clash in ways that make fitting in difficult for expatriates, for example.

What is stress? - Chapter 10

10.1 Stress

Measuring Work Stress

Stress is an important avenue of research as it can cost companies a great deal of money through lawsuits and productivity losses. Kahn and Byosiere developed a model of the stress process that includes work stressors, moderators of the stress process, and the consequences of stress. Pioneers in stress research include Walter Cannon, who found the fight or flight reaction, an adaptive response to a stressful situation that involves a choice to run away or to confront the assailant. He coined the term stress.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye distinguished stress from its positive counterpart, eustress, a positive version of stress that can be motivating. Selye identified General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), an automatic response of the human body when coping with any type of stress. This can be divided into three stages:

1. Alarm reaction: the heart rate increases, along with stress hormones like adrenalin, noradrenalin, epinephrine, and cortisol.

2. Resistance: the body copes but resistance to other stressors is decreased.

3. Exhaustion: overall resistance drops, leading to burnout, illness, and even death.

Prolonged exposure to a stressor can be damaging to the body. Stress reactions are automatic, and some elements of stress reactions do not have obvious physical symptoms, so it can be insidious.

Coping with Stress

Individuals appraise experience and cope with stress in many ways. Two main types of coping are problem-focused coping, which is directed at managing the problem that causes the stress, and emotion-focused coping which is directed towards reducing the emotional response through avoidance, minimizing, and distancing oneself from the problem.

Stressors

Stressors are physical or psychological demands that require a response from the individual. Reactions to these stressors are called strains.

Common Work Stressors

Physical Stressors

Uncontrollable noise is a particularly stressful physical stressor and lowers task performance and motivation. Even in office workplaces, background noise can have a significant impact on work performance. The demands of a job can also be stressful when the pace of work, workload, and required hours are high. Keep in mind that multiple stressors are cumulative, so while physical demands may be stressful, adding psychological stressors compounds the issue.

Psychological Stressors

• Lack of Control

  A person’s perception of their own control of a situation and the work that they do can impact stress. Autonomy is the extent to which employees have control. Interventions that enhance an individual’s perception of control are likely to reduce stress.

• Interpersonal Issues

  Interpersonal conflict, like being treated in an unfriendly way or having an argument, can occur between coworkers, supervisors, and clients. It is distracting and can have both physical and psychological consequences.

• Role Issues

  Most jobs have many task requirements and responsibilities that require different roles. A role consists of the expectations regarding a job’s specific responsibilities and requirements. Role ambiguity is when an employee is not clear on what is expected of them. Role conflict, on the other hand, is when an employee experiences incompatible demands from different sources. One more specific form of role conflict is role overload, which occurs when a person is expected to fill too many roles at one time.

• Conflicting Work-Family Obligations

  Work-family conflict, as previously mentioned, is when workers experience conflict between their personal lives and their workplace. Since working women still take on most of the responsibilities of the home, they often fill more roles than men. That being said, compared to men, women tend to have better coping strategies to handle this stress, like seeking social support. Work-family conflict contributes to poor physical and psychological health in both genders. Flexible time schedules and child care are more and more crucial to many working families. Unexpected child-care situations, like a child needing to stay home sick from school, are also a stressor.

• Emotional Labor Stress

  Emotional labor is when a job requires a person to regulate their emotions to meet the demands of a job. This can require surface acting (faking expressions) or deep acting (managing feelings to change one’s emotional state to match what is required.) 1/3 of American workers engage in this behavior. Jobs that require emotional labor are ones in which people encounter verbal abuse from customers. Stress occurs when the required emotions do not match the employee’s actual emotional state. Suppressing emotions is a cognitive and physiological effort. Humor, social support, and depersonalizing work encounters are good strategies to deal with emotional labor.

  Challenge-related stressors are work demands that, while stressful, may also be rewarding. Hindrance-related stressors are job demands that limit or interfere with work achievement, like administrative paperwork, lack of job security, and even malfunctioning office equipment.

Consequences

Behavioral

1. Information processing: People have limited cognitive resources. Stressful situations restrict those resources and negatively impact the ability to process information.

2. Performance: Stress and performance exist on an inverted U. Performance steadily increases as stress does, until the stress becomes too much- then productivity suffers. Before the breaking point, stress is eustress. It also tends to be less helpful when a task is complex.

3. CWB (Counterproductive Work Behavior): Stressors in the work environment increase perceptions of stress and negative emotions. This can lead to acting out in the form of CWBs.

Psychological

Burnout is an extreme state of psychological strain that results from a prolonged response to chronic job stressors, beyond one’s ability to cope. This has been observed in high-pressure caring professions like nursing and teaching. There are three main components of burnout:

1. Emotional exhaustion: emotionally drained by the work day.

2. Depersonalization: hardened by the job, treating clients like objects.

3. Low personal accomplishment: unable to deal with problems or relate to the problems of others.

The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is a self-report measure that measures burnout. Burnout is higher among younger employees who may be overwhelmed by job demands. People with low self-esteem and type A behavior patterns tend to be more prone to burnout. Early warning signs like exhaustion and cynicism tend to lead to more serious burnout. The perception of fairness in the workplace can impact whether someone actually develops burnout.

Physiological

The body reacts physiologically to stress. The sympathetic nervous system activates, causing an increase in heart rate which may initially improve decision making and physical performance, but over time can lead to excess stress hormones and increased blood pressure. There are three interrelated types of physiological consequences to stress:

• Cardiovascular (blood pressure, heart rate, cholesterol)

• Gastrointestinal (digestive problems)

• Biochemical (increased cortisol and catecholamines)

Working Schedules

Shifts

Shift work is when a person is scheduled to work in a particular time period. This can be counter to the circadian cycle, a person’s 24-hour physiological period of activity/inactivity. Working against the circadian cycle by working night shifts can be damaging for health, performance, and satisfaction. When a person is permanently assigned to a shift, it is called a fixed shift. Moving from shift to shift is called a rotating shift schedule. Rotating shifts are more problematic, leading to sleep disturbances and medical/psychological issues. They are hardest on older workers. Furthermore, for night shift workers, day-time social obligations can seriously effect and outweigh improvements made by gradually adjusting to a new rhythm. Services that need to be functional for 24 hours a day, 7 days a week (like nursing and public safety) are more likely to be shift-based. Furthermore, permanent day-shift work tends to be more satisfying overall than afternoon, night, or rotating shift work.

Flextime

Individuals who work on a flextime schedule are given the choice over the time they report to work and the time they leave. These are uncommon in manufacturing, but in other areas are increasing. This allows a person to allot their 40 hours a week according to what is convenient for them. Given the option to arrive and leave when they want to does not mean that people do – we are creatures of habit. However, benefits of flextime include a greater perception of control and an easier time at achieving work-family balance.

Compressed Week

Some people work longer than eight hours a day so that they can work fewer than five days a week.

Consequences

Flextime and compressed workweek schedules raises worker satisfaction and even productivity. Flextime is associated with lower absenteeism for most people, though does not have the same results for professionals and managers like accountants. Extreme flexibility may also be less effective. The effects of flextime also diminish after a few months as the new scheduling becomes the norm. These two types of schedules also have the benefit of being more “green” by reducing commuting.

Telecommuting

Finally, telecommuting is growing substantially. This may have an impact on workplace scheduling, as well as on team-based work.

10.2 Theories about Stress

Demand-Control

The demand-control model of stress suggests that two important factors related to job stress are job demands (the workload and intellectual requirements of a job) and job control (the autonomy experienced in a job and discretion for using different skills). High work demands and low control make for a high strain job. High demands and high control create an active job that is stimulating. Low control and low demands are considered passive jobs. High control and low demands make low strain jobs.

Person-Environment Fit

The person-environment fit (P-E fit) model suggests that how well a person fits with their environment determines the levels of stress they feel. A good fit means that the person’s skills and abilities match the requirements of their job and environment. A poor fit means more strain, a good fit means less. Research has begun to distinguish between person-job (P-J) fit and person-organization (P-O) fit, which is the extent to which the person’s values are consistent with those held in his/her organization. Fit can be increased through recruitment processes as well as skill training. Social support is one mechanism that can help relieve the stress that comes from a poor fit.

Individual Differences

Different personality characteristics modify the experience of and response to stress. Differences most looked at as modifiers are locus of control, hardiness, self-esteem, and type A behavior. Locus of Control (LOC) is the extent to which people believe the events in their lives are internally or externally caused. People with a more internal locus of control experience less strain under the same stressors. Similarly, hardiness is a set of personality characteristics that help an individual resist stress. Hardy people feel in control of their lives, feel a sense of commitment to their work and family, and see change as a challenge rather than an obstacle. Hardy people take a problem-focused and support-seeking coping strategy. They experience better overall health and well-being. A key aspect of hardiness is the transformational coping, seeing problems as challenges. Furthermore, self-esteem is an important resource for coping and leads to better coping choices.

Type A

A type A behavior pattern (TABP) is a set of characteristics of people who struggle constantly to obtain certain poorly defined things from their environment, and quickly. These characteristics include hostility, achievement striving, impatience/irritability, and time urgency. TABP can be bad for your coronary health, giving it the alternate name coronary-prone personality. Type A’s tend to be obsessed by efficiency and time saving. Type B’s, on the other hand, are described as patient, relaxed, and easygoing. TABP is associated with positive outcomes in career success. Studies have shown that hostility is a subcomponent of TABP, associated with the increased secretion of stress hormones.

Achievement Striving

Achievement striving (AS) is a subcomponent of TABP. It is the tendency to be active in achieving one’s goals. This is related to conscientiousness and is associated with high performance and job satisfaction. Impatience/irritability (II), another component, reflects intolerance and frustration that results from being slowed down. It is associated with health problems like insomnia.

Time Urgency

Time urgency is another subcomponent of TABP, one that involves a preoccupation with and perception of time pressure. Time-urgent people check their watch often and are concerned with saving small amounts of time. They tend to pack too many things in to too short a time. This has multiple dimensions from eating behavior to scheduling to speech patterns. Some people may be high on some of these dimensions and low on others. Some time-urgent behaviors, like scheduling, are linked to work outcomes, while others are related to health outcomes. Individuals with deadlines tend to work faster.

10.3 Stress Reduction

Stress Prevention

Occupational health psychology is the application of psychology to the improvement of quality of life and health and safety in the workplace. Primary stress prevention strategies are concerned with modifying and/or eliminating stressors in the work environment.

Work Design

It is possible to redesign/restructure work and jobs to reduce stressors like noise, interruptions, time pressure, role ambiguity, and work hours. Worker participation and control can be encouraged, as can autonomy.

Cognitive Restructuring Interventions

Cognitive restructuring interventions are those that focus on changing the thought processes and perceptions that lead to stress, and can involve turning negative thoughts into positive ones.

Secondary Prevention

Secondary prevention strategies are those that involve modifying a person’s response to stressors, often used when there are inevitable stressors in the work environment that must be faced. These are similar to emotion-focused coping strategies. Lifestyle choices like healthy eating and fitness fit into secondary prevention. Skills training in negotiation and conflict resolution may also help. Secondary prevention can be proactive or reactive.

Stress Management

Stress management training programs help employees deal with unchangeable stressors. This includes cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to help workers recognize their appraisal processes about how stressful a situation might be, and to develop helpful behaviors. Stress inoculation is a common variety of CBT which involves an educational component, rehearsal to learn new skills, and application of new skills in real-world situations.

Relaxation and Biofeedback

Progressive muscle relaxation is a stress management technique that relaxes the muscles and helps relax the body. Biofeedback is a technique that teaches people to control body functions like heart rate and blood pressure by responding to feedback about their body from an electronic device.

The Impact of Social Support

There have been four kinds of social support identified:

• Instrumental support: practical, direct help.

• Emotional support: interest in and sympathy with a person’s problems.

• Informational support: providing information that helps a person solve problems.

• Appraisal support: feedback about a person’s functioning that enhances self-esteem.

The buffer or moderator hypothesis suggests that social support may buffer or moderate the effect of negative work strain. Employers can build effective social support networks at work like formal mentoring programs, reward systems, and newcomer socialization programs.

Tertiary Prevention

Tertiary prevention strategies are those directed towards treating the symptoms of stress. This involves medical care, psychotherapy, and career counseling. Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) help address stress difficulties and problems outside of the job as well. In order for EAPs to be successful, management must fully support their presence. Confidentiality with EAPs must be ensured, and treatment by EAPs must not impact job security. Since EAPs mostly focus on dealing with the long-term consequences of stress, they should also not be the only prevention method used by an organization.

Future Trends

The workforce is becoming more diverse, meaning that researchers need to focus their efforts on cross-cultural research. The globalization of the economy means that looking at culture-specific job stressors is also important. For instance, mistakes at work are more stressful for Chinese employees than American ones. Western countries have more role ambiguity. Beyond cultural differences, it is crucial that the role of technology is examined.

10.4 Workplace Violence

Work-related violence includes violent actions carried out by a nonemployee on an employee (like experienced in a police job), and also includes violence enacted by employees on other employees. Stressful layoffs, diminishing job opportunities, multicultural prejudices, drug abuse, and reduced communication might have an influence on levels of violence in the workplace.

Violence and Stress

Workplace violence is associated with high self-esteem that has been disrupted through negative feedback or derogatory treatment. These are also known as ego threats. 68% of violent acts involve some type of psychiatric diagnosis before the incident, either related to depression, personality disorders, or substance abuse. Stress is considered one of the causes of workplace violence, and workplace violence is a cause of stress. Witnessing workplace violence increases job stress and strain.

Violence Levels

There are different levels of violence according to how dramatic they may be. The three main levels are:

1. Consistent arguments, refusal to cooperate, rumor-spreading, belligerence, swearing, and inappropriate sexual conflict.

2. Increasing arguing, refusal to comply with company rules, sabotaging equipment and work, threats to co-workers and management, sexual or violent notes, developing an “us vs. them” attitude.

3. Physical fights, destruction of property, suicide threats, using weapons to harm others, murder, rape, and arson.

Experiential Sequence

Violence occurs in a sequence in which an event occurs, a belief exists that a problem cannot be resolved, and the person perceives a threat to their self-esteem and well-being. The individual may have suffered trauma increasing their anxiety. They project responsibility for issues onto the situation rather than taking responsibility. They may become increasingly ego-centric, and begin to believe that self-preservation is their sole objective and that violence is the only way out.

The Violent Worker

Most cases of workplace violence come from a perception of injustices. An individual prone to become violence may exhibit some (if not all) of these characteristics:

• Long history with the organization

• Non-participatory in social events

• White male 25-50

• Lost or is worried about losing their job

• Abuses substances like alcohol

• Often violates company policies

• Trouble accepting authority

• Few hobbies and interests outside of work

• Often experiences conflict with coworkers

• Works under an authoritative manager

Organizational characteristics can also be related to violence, according to this list. These include high stress, threat of layoff, lacking communication, and a lack of a formal appeals process for questioning performance appraisals.

Theories

Frustration-Aggression

The frustration-aggression hypothesis argues that frustration leads to aggression. This is, however, too broad, as frustration can lead to many other responses, and aggression can have many other causes. The frustration-aggression connection is now understood to be more along the lines where an individual experiencing a stress reaction may expend energy to relieve stress through counterproductive work behaviors. If the individual believes the obstruction that frustrates them from achieving their goal can be solved by constructive means, they are less likely to take aggressive action. Thus, improving an employee’s sense of control can help prevent violence.

Anger and anxiety are two emotions associated with violence. Anger often stems from anxiety. People who believe they are superior to others are more likely to resort to violence. Assessment techniques are being developed to predict aggressive behaviors, like a reasoning test to assess unconscious biases.

Justice

The justice hypothesis of workplace violence proposes that violent acts may be understood as reactions against perceived injustice. Taking matters into one’s own hands, so to speak. Workers tend to evaluate workplace events in terms of procedural justice (related to issues of due process), distributive justice (related to outcomes), and interpersonal justice (the way decisions are communicated). Employers should try to ensure that they run a just organization. Alcohol consumption interacts with feelings of injustice, increasing the likelihood of injustice-reactionary violence. Interestingly, layoffs only increase aggression up to a point: after continued layoffs, remaining employees may be less aggressive as a way to protect their jobs. It is crucial that layoffs are conducted with care for justice perceptions.

Bullying

Bullying is not limited to the childhood classroom, but continues in the workplace. American I-O psychologists have not given the subject of workplace bullying as much attention as European psychologists have. This may be related to the cultural attitude of the United States, which is an individualist country in which the use of power has more positive connotations. Bullying is defined as harassment, offense, social exclusion, and the assignment of humiliating tasks to a subordinate, repeatedly and over a long period of time.

The Progression of Bullying

Bullying can be seen as the escalation of conflict that follows these steps:

1. A critical event: a work-related dispute between two individuals.

2. Bullying and stigmatizing: the person in the inferior position is subjected to aggressive acts by the bully intended to damage the victim.

3. The organization intervenes to make the dispute official.

4. The victim is separated from the organization because they begin to act in ineffective ways.

The victim, having been stigmatized, is often rendered powerless. Being different in the workplace is a risk factor for bullying. Bullying tends to begin subtly, with rumor spreading and sabotage. The victim may be singled out for humiliation and ridicule, and may finally be directly threatened or considered emotionally unstable.

Coping with Bullies

Successful coping with bullies invariably includes a third party intervention, which usually involves separating the bully and victim through a transfer. Confronting the bully directly is seen as a sign of aggression, only justifying the bully’s behavior. Victims have no control and cannot do much to improve their position. Allowing the parties to work it out themselves rarely, if ever, works and is dangerous. Tactics of bullying are similar to the tactics of sexual harassment.

What is fairness? - Chapter 11

11.1 Fairness and Justice

Justice

The three main types of justice are distributive, procedural and interactional. They play a significant role in the workplace, especially in tense situations like a layoff. Perceptions of justice affect organizational citizenship, trust and respect of the organization, thoughts of quitting and job performance. It can also lead to violence. Justice is related to people’s beliefs about their own worth. When presented with a situation that challenges their worth, they are forced to either change their belief in themselves or in their organization. Employees see a contract violation while employer’s see an uncontrollable circumstance.

Fairness and Trust

Justice, fairness, and trust are often used as interchangeable terms. Justice and fairness characterize an event or exchange, while trust is an expectation, a belief about how someone else will act. Distrust, on the contrary, is a sense of wariness, a concern that the other party may do something harmful, that he/she doesn’t care about one’s welfare and intends to act in a hostile way. Distrust causes one to question actions taken by the distrusted party.

Expectations

Trust can be undermined when a gap occurs between what an organization has promised and what they actually deliver. Unmet expectations are very damaging for trust.

Leaders

Leaders are presumed to represent the organization’s values. If a leader cheats and lies, a person may not only distrust the leader, but the whole institution. A certain amount of distrust may be helpful, acting as a check and balance for an organization, but too much can be harmful.

Surveillance

Technologies used to monitor employees can undermine trust. While meant to increase employee trustworthiness, they send the message that the employer believes the employees are not trustworthy. Instead of improving service, measures to monitor employees may serve only to create fear and resentment.

Rebuilding Trust

Once trust has been lost, it is very difficult to rebuild. People tend to dwell on negative events and give them greater weight. One strategy to rebuild trust is to give an explanation for a behavior instead of a justification. Apologies can also help. Interestingly, managers are reluctant to use these strategies, opting to save face and retreat in silence. In some circumstances, however, like when the Americans with Disabilities Act is in play, an explanation might be against regulations.

Approaches to Justice

Organizational justice is a type of justice composed of organizational procedures, outcomes, and interpersonal interactions.

Distributive

Distributive justice is related to the perception of fairness in regards to how rewards and outcomes are distributed among employees. There are different ways to view the fairness of a reward. The merit norm/equity norm insists that the people who work hardest should get the greatest rewards. The need norm suggests that people should get rewards proportionally to their needs. The equality norm suggests that people should receive approximately equal rewards, regardless of effort. In the USA, the equity norm is more supported, in Scandinavian countries and East Asian countries, the equality norm is supported.

Determining Fairness

Individuals compare what they get to their expectations, not necessarily to what they deserve. People also distinguish between favorable and fair. So, while someone else might get the promotion, if they deserved it more, it’s fair. In some cultures, there is a modesty bias in which people don’t want to claim credit for positive outcomes, and fairness then takes on a different meaning. Another issue in distributive justice is when people at high positions in a company make far more than their subordinates, and are seen to waste it or not deserve it. Further into distribution is pensions – there has been a shift from defined benefit plans that follow traditional pension modes to defined contribution plans, which is considerably less stable and bound to weaken trust.

Procedural

Procedural justice is not about outcomes, but about the process by which ratings are assigned and rewards are distributed. A person’s ability to challenge a process or outcome is called their voice. Organizations high in centralization tend to be seen as procedurally unfair in comparison to decentralized organization. Having a voice in large procedures like layoffs is a significant factor in perceptions of fairness. The survivors of layoffs can experience a loss of trust in the organization if not given a chance to express themselves.

Procedural Justice and the Work-Life Balance

When an employee feels that procedures are unfairly implemented, the stress of work-life conflict is higher and organizational commitment decreases. Perceptions of procedural fairness can actually counteract imperfect working circumstances. Thus, communication and empathy are simple and free interventions that can increase positive attitudes about the workplace. Self-esteem is enhanced when procedural fairness is present and the outcome is positive, but fair procedures with negative outcomes lower self-esteem. Low levels of procedural justice are associated with more claims of employment discrimination.

Interactional

Interactional justice is concerned with the sensitivity with which employees are treated, and linked to the extent that the employee feels respected by the employer. In a layoff, it is seen as more just if employees are kept accurately informed about both decisions and procedures. A sensitive way to address a layoff would be private meetings with the opportunity for discussion, rather than an impersonal email memo or news release. Interactional justice can be split into two subcomponents: informational justice and interpersonal justice. Informational justice deals with communication – how candid it is, how thorough explanations are, and how timely the communication is. Interpersonal justice is more related to how things are conveyed, how sensitive the employer is to the needs and feelings of their employees. If an employer is seen as warm and supportive, their interpersonal justice may be high. The perceptions of fair interpersonal treatment scale (PFIT) concentrates on items like favoritism, fair treatment, trust, appreciation of hard work, and disrespectful interactions.

Deontic

Deontic justice is a form of organizational justice based on perceptions of what is considered a correct, moral course of action. This can sometimes clash with distributive justice. This topic is too new to draw conclusions on.

Injustice

Injustice has a greater impact than justice on the attitudes, emotions, and behavior of people. Once a threshold of injustice is reached, the trust cannot be regained. The injustice will linger for a long time. Even if we ourselves are not the victim, we can experience injustice vicariously.

11.2 Practical Matters

Distributive and procedural justice are predictors of employee attitudes. Distributive and procedural justice are linked – if one is low, the other often becomes low, too. Feelings of disgust, disbelief, sadness, and anger often result from perceptions of injustice.

Performance Evaluations

In a performance evaluation, issues of justice are particularly salient. A person will feel justly treated only if their supervisor has been careful about gathering accurate information, the employee has been given a chance to discuss the evaluation, the employee is given a chance to formally disagree, the supervisor is familiar with the employee’s work, and the supervisor is consistent in judgment standards across people and across time. There has been a shift from performance measurement to performance management. This increases perceptions of fairness. How managers are treated also affects the way they treat subordinates. If they feel unfairly treated by their own bosses, they may be more sensitive.

Applicant Selection

The process of selecting applicants is also a situation when fairness is a large consideration. This is important, because if applicants feel they have been treated unfairly in the application process, they may not accept the employment offer. Unfair selection procedures also affect the reputation of the employer and can lead to lawsuits. A fair process can make the application procedure more pleasant and less stressful for all involved.

Conclusions on Applicant Selection

After a review of research on applicant reactions, a number of conclusions have been made. In recruiting, applicants see the recruiter as representative of the organization’s values. When being asked for biographical data in selection, applicants are more wary than when asked in training situations. Mental ability tests with items related to the job are viewed positively. People more eager to take tests will do better at them, and people generally prefer computer-based tests.

Assessment centres are seen as more job-related and thus preferable. Interviews related to the job under consideration are preferred, though telephone interviews are not. Applicants prefer seeing work samples, and are unenthusiastic about drug testing, especially if a job is not safety-sensitive. Respondents are more positive towards tasks that have high face validity, but negative towards graphology, astrology, and polygraphs. Respondents prefer interviews, work sample tests, etc.

The strongest predictors of favorability are tests that give people the opportunity to perform and have high perceived face validity. In short:

1. Selection should be transparent.

2. Selection should be as objective and job-related as possible.

3. Candidates should receive honest feedback about their performance.

4. Candidates should receive realistic information about the working conditions and requirements of the job.

5. Candidates should have a say in the scheduling of the assessment.

6. Candidates should be treated respectfully in a way intended to reduce stress.

Stereotype Threat

The construct of stereotype threat refers to the pressure a person feels when they are at risk of being seen to confirm a negative stereotype about the group in which they belong. Knowledge of a stereotype can impact performance during assessment – women being tested on math, if aware of a stereotype that women are bad at math, will often do worse on the test than if unaware of the stereotype. If told she is doing a test on “problem solving”, a woman will likely do better.

Applicant Decisions

There are five models related to how people choose jobs:

1. Rational economic model: sees the individual as an accountant, summing up the potential gains and losses of a choice.

2. Rational psychological model: infers an accountancy mentality, but talks about the attractiveness of a job according to other features than money.

3. Organizational fit model: based on a match between the individual’s characteristics and those of the organization.

4. Individual differences model: based on individual personality or style

5. Negotiation process model: organizations and individuals behave as negotiators and jointly decide whether a contract should be signed.

Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a program implemented in the United States that acknowledges the under representation of certain demographic groups and provides mechanisms to increase their representation. Affirmative action hiring programs can be seen as controversial, as some people see them as violating equality and equity rules. Equal opportunities are often promised in the American job market, though not equal outcomes. This makes it a merit-based system. Affirmative action is different than the equal opportunity model- it suggests that due to subtle discrimination in the system itself, not everyone ends up having equal opportunities. With affirmative action, unfortunately, both favored and non-favored employees see themselves as being treated unfairly. Many perceive them as being “quota”-based systems.

Affirmative action programs can be specialized recruiting programs, specialized training, mentoring programs, planned development opportunities, and specialized performance feedback groups. It has been found that there is slightly more support when affirmative action programs are directed at helping women than when they are directed at ethnic groups. Many people also believe that discrimination is no longer a problem (because it is less explicit).

Culture and Affirmative Action

Affirmative action would be seen as less controversial in countries with an equality norm and a need norm related to distributive justice.

11.3 Diversity Issues

Defining Diversity

Diversity is a term used to refer to differences in the demographic characteristics, values, abilities, interests, and experiences of people in a given group. Multiculturalism is a goal in some organizations who attempt to create one culture that reflects diversity rather than a number of small, separate cultures existing in the same organization.

Diversity’s Dynamics

Relational demography is the method by which work groups and organizations are composed and changed and the relative makeup of demographic characteristics in a particular group. A diverse group will include people who disagree with each other’s values and goals, who have different values they defend, who disagree about how to allot money and to which tasks, who have different areas of expertise and knowledge that can lead to disagreements about method. People typically prefer a homogeneous work group that does not come with these challenges.

People tend to revert to an “us” vs. “them” way of thinking because it’s easier to work with. We judge others according to our own culture, seeing them as abnormal in comparison.

Multiculturalism

Some people find a diverse work group stimulating, but more people prefer to work with others who are similar. Since this is usually not possible, diverse work groups need to be managed effectively. Diversity actually used to be a goal, but managing diversity has turned out to be a challenge.

Managing Diversity

Successfully managing diversity involves exhibiting diversity at all levels of the organization, fostering diversity in both formal and informal social networks, rooting out bias and discrimination, building commitment and attachment among all members, reducing interpersonal conflict, and acknowledging differences so that they may be accommodated. Two ineffective models of diversity are:

• Assimilation model: recruiting, selecting, and training employees so they share the same values. This assumes there are no benefits to diversity.

• Protection model: identifying underrepresented groups and providing them with special protection. This leads to fairness and justice issues.

The effective model is:

• Value model: each individual is valued for their unique contribution.

The value model often involves diversity training, support networks, equal career development opportunities, etc.

Inclusion is the degree to which individuals in a group feel safe, valued, and able to be themselves as individuals and members of various groups. An organization functions through the combination of many human attributes in ways that are optimal for a given task – that’s where diversity can be an attribute.

Diversity Training

Diversity training to extinguish stereotypes and diversity performance evaluations have both been relatively ineffective. Successful diversity programs use mentoring and have a task force responsible for increasing the number of unrepresented group members in good jobs. Unfortunately, those who are already most aware of diversity issues are the ones most interested in participating in diversity programs.

What are the different aspects of leadership? - Chapter 12

12.1 Leadership as a Concept

Leadership Effectiveness and Leader Emergence

Leader emergence is the study of the characteristics of individuals who become leaders by looking at why they were elected, appointed, or accepted. Leadership effectiveness is the study of the behaviors that make a good leader, that lead to a valued outcome within an organization. Both of these are predicted by high levels of intelligence, dominance, self-efficacy, and self-monitoring.

Leader Emergence

Emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experience, and conscientiousness are all considered qualities of an emergent leader. Extraversion is the most consistent trait among leaders. High self-monitoring is related to being elected as a leader, though not to leadership effectiveness.

How to Define Leadership Outcomes

Defining leadership outcomes is challenging. What aspects of the structure and performance of an organization do they impact. The effects of a leader’s actions may not be obvious. This is partly because those actions are complex and often run according to a long-term plan for which short-term consequences are not noticeable. Leaders also find themselves in different situations on a daily basis, with new problems to solve.

Destructive Leaders

There is a dark side to leadership. Destructive leaders are ones who systematically and repeatedly violate the legitimate interest of the organization by undermine/sabotaging the organization’s goals, tasks, resources and effectiveness, and the motivation, well-being, and job-satisfaction of subordinates. There are three types of destructive leader:

• Tyrannical: accepts the organization’s goals but chooses to accomplish those goals by manipulating and humiliating subordinates.

• Derailed: behaves abusively but also engages in anti-organizational behavior like fraud or theft. They tend to have encountered barriers on their road to success.

• Supportive-Disloyal: shows consideration for subordinates but undermines the accomplishment of organizational goals, either by stealing resources, granting too many benefits to subordinates, or encouraging misconduct.

A Leader, a Manager, and a Supervisor

The terms manager and supervisor are job titles. A leader is the person given the task (or assuming it when it is not assigned) of directing and coordinating group activities. “Leader” has the extra connotation of people who exert (or attempt to exert) great influence on others. There are three distinctions of leadership:

• Attempted leadership: the leader accepts the goal to change a follower and can be seen trying to do just that.

• Successful leadership: a follower changes his/her behavior because of the leader’s effort.

• Effective leadership: a follower changes their behavior due to the leader’s actions, resulting in both the leader and follower feeling satisfied and effective.

Effective leadership has the best outcomes for a business.

Blending Management and Leadership

It used to be believed that effective leaders were hard to come by, that great leadership was an inborn trait that could not be taught. More recently, it has been found that many people can become effective leaders and that leadership is not just about traits but also about behaviors. Bormon and Brush made a taxonomy that linked the key aspects of leadership and management into 18 dimensions. Tett and colleagues proposed 53 narrower dimensions instead. The results of both studies are useful in different situations. Further research has suggested four skill requirements of leadership: strategic, business, interpersonal, and cognitive. Both business skills and strategic skills improve with experience

Developing Leaders and Developing Leadership

Leader development concentrates on enhancing individual leader attributes like knowledge, skills, and abilities. Leadership development concentrates on the leader-follower relationship, developing an environment in which the leader can build relationships that enhance cooperation and the exchange of resources. Interpersonal competence is considered the most important of these abilities. According to David Day, every member of a work group should be involved in leadership in some way. A good leader, then, leads by making use of the unique contributions of each group member, and helping them relate to one another. In regards to leader development, other researchers suggest that an effective leader is an expert, with more cognitive and behavioral tools available for leading. Ten years of deliberate practice leads to expertise, and furthermore, if self-identity is connected to leadership, it leads to more leadership effectiveness.

Leadership Motivation

People who aspire to leadership positions have a high power motive, high activity inhibition, and low affiliation needs. People learn that exercising control over others and the situation is pleasant – this is the power motive. High activity inhibition means that someone is not impulsive. Low affiliation need means that the individual doesn’t desire the approval of others, allowing them to burn bridges when they need to. This is, however, not the only motivation to lead. Some leaders fulfill their positions out of a sense of duty. There are three types of motives that have been identified:

• Affective-Identity: Leading because it’s enjoyable.

• Instrumental: Leading because it’s advantageous but not desirable.

• Social-Normative: Leading because it’s an expected/valued duty.

12.2 Old Theories of Leadership

Great Man Theories

The great man theories of leadership are developed by historians who look at the lives of leaders to see how they came to greatness. They often focus on an admirable trait like optimism or an experience of overcoming adversity.

Trait Approach

The trait approach suggests that leaders possess characteristics that non-leaders do not. This is an early I-O psychology approach. This has proved to be a dead end, and difficult to measure, especially since I-O psychology used to focus too much on productivity as a criterion.

Power Approach

One approach to leadership is to look at the types of power that leaders have – this is called the power approach. French and Raven suggested five types:

1. Reward power: the ability to dispense rewards.

2. Coercive power: the ability to dispense punishments.

3. Legitimate power: the right to influence a subordinate, who in turn is obligated to obey.

4. Referent power: when the subordinate identifies with, and wants to act like the leader and thus follows their example.

5. Expert power: expertise in a certain area.

Formal power allows managers to increase other power bases by forming coalitions, controlling important decisions, co-opting the opposition, and controlling the flow of information.

Behavioral Approach

Ohio State Studies

The behavioral approach began with research at the Ohio State University, which focused on the kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles. Two basic dimensions of leadership behavior were defined:

• Consideration: mutual trust, respect, and warmth between supervisor and group, emphasizing concern for group needs.

• Initiating structure: organizing and defining group roles and activities, assigning tasks, planning ahead, and pushing for overt achievement of organizational goals.

These two dimensions parallel the behavior patterns studied in male and female leadership styles.

University of Michigan Studies

In the University of Michigan, studies were conducted on leadership at around the same time. It identified task-oriented behavior (initiating structure) and relations-oriented behavior (consideration) as important. However, it also found that participative behavior on the part of the leader was also key to effectiveness – encouraging two-way communication and allowing subordinates to participate in decision-making.

Contingency Approach

The contingency approach theories were proposed to take the situation into account as well. Hersey and Blanchard suggested that the maturity of the subordinate would influence the success of the leadership approach. Job maturity is the subordinate’s job-related skills, abilities, and knowledge. Psychological maturity is the self-confidence and self-respect of the subordinate. They suggested that if the subordinates have low maturity, a structural approach would be better. This theory did not find much support but does call into question the role of the subordinate in the leadership relationship.

Vroom-Yetton Model

Advantages of a participative leadership style include the increased identification of subordinates to decisions and work outcomes, increased clarity of plans, objectives, potential rewards and punishments. Participation is a satisfying experience that also taps the talents and skills of group members. It is possible that group members are not skilled, in which case they may have trouble helping to make effective decisions. The Vroom-Yetton Model has suggested that an autocratic decision is not appropriate when the decision is important and when subordinates have information that the leader does not.

If subordinates are not invested in task goals, group decision-making is inappropriate. If the leader does not have the necessary expertise to make a decision to an unstructured problem, interaction is better. If acceptance is critical, group decision making might be better. The Vroom-Yetton model makes contingencies for a number of leadership situations, making it a practical tool for any given decision-making situation.

12.3 New Theories of Leadership

Exchange between Leaders and Members

The leader-member exchange theory (LMX) suggested that leadership style emerges out of interactions with particular group members and develops based on the quality of the leader-member relationship. Subordinates fall into two groups: in-group members, who have high-quality relationships with the leader and are able to negotiate their work roles a little bit more informally, and out-group members who have low-quality relationships and little latitude to negotiate work roles, in which formal authority is necessary. In-group members are more likely to remain with an organization. These relationships tend to be beneficial for both the subordinate and the manager. More recent revisions of the theory suggest that the leader-follower relationship goes through a life cycle. It begins tentatively, then either becomes more committed, or remains at the initial stage. Those who evolve become in-group members.

It is suggested that it is the leader’s job to direct the relationship in a more meaningful direction. High quality relationships lead to higher productivity and lower turnover, and even enhance creativity among creative employees. There is a general agreement that LMX theory works and shows a positive relationship between high-quality LMX relationships and citizenship behaviors. The size of the group, however, matters – larger groups have a generally lower quality LMX relationship. High LMX relationships are especially important for introverted executives, being mutually beneficial for the leader and the subordinate. It is important to note that the perception of leadership can be more important than actual behavior for leadership success.

Transformational Leadership

Transformational Leadership is a term used to describe inspirational leaders, who transform followers by appealing to nobler motives like justice, morality, and peace. They make people believe that they can change the world through their actions. Burns distinguishes between ethical leadership and moral leadership. An ethical leader actually behaves how they want their followers to behave. They tend to be agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, and have an internal locus of control. Moral leadership is characterized more by the support of moral ideas rather than actually behaving well.

Self-sacrifice is related to leadership morality. Transformational leadership is further distinguished from transactional leadership, in which leaders show followers that they can meet personal goals by adopting a particular behavior pattern. The leader develops social contracts with followers that promise rewards.

Strategies of Transformational Leadership

The four general strategies of transformational leaders are:

1. Idealized influence: leader is convicted, emphasizes trust and purpose, and aware of ethics.

2. Inspirational motivation: leader demonstrates idealized vision of the future, encourages high standards, is optimistic and enthusiastic, and provides encouragement.

3. Intellectual stimulation: questions old assumptions, values, and beliefs in order to stimulate new ideas and methods.

4. Individualized consideration: deals with people as individuals with needs and abilities, listens and coaches.

Burns saw leadership as running from transactional to transformational. Bass, however, saw transformational leadership as building on transactional leadership. Bass had a hierarchical model called the full-range theory of leadership ranging from no leadership (a laissez-faire style) to transformational leadership, with levels of transactional leadership in between. High-performance HR practices support and enable transformational leadership, while old HR practice may actually cancel the effect out. Transformational leaders have been found to have better social networks and to be more effective in leading organizational change. They also tend to be able to look at the larger picture. Interactional justice, which involves respectful communication, is positively associated with transformational leadership. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a self-report instrument developed to validate the theory of transformational leadership. This is, however, not enough, especially when transformational leadership may exist mostly in perception than as an inherent trait.

Authentic Leadership

Authentic leadership is a style that emphasizes integrity and genuineness of the leader. Authentic leaders often express their life stories and attempt to be honest about their experiences. This might be a challenge for female leaders who are up against male leadership stereotypes, as well as having fewer old leadership challenges to talk about. Authentic leadership is defined by a positive self-concept, high emotional intelligence, integrity, a desire to learn, self-monitoring, high self-esteem, and a history of positive LMX relationships.

Authenticity must be seen in the context of high moral values, because a person can also be honest about how they think everyone should be oppressed and about their childhood as a bully.

Charisma

Finally, the idealized influence mentioned in relation to Bass’s model is consistent with a trait known as charisma. Charisma is a person’s charm, the aspect of a person that inspires admiration and compliance in others. It does, however, expire and can be diminished by situations like scandals. It is a combination of leader characteristics and follower beliefs. Followers of charismatic leaders are emotionally attached and unquestioning. This can have negative consequences (cults! Nazis!). Charismatic leaders:

• Are very confident

• Need power

• Try to impress followers

• Express an appealing vision of the future

• Teach by example

• Set high goals for followers

• Attempt to appeal to fundamental motives like the need for power, affiliation, and achievement

Charismatic leaders use more metaphors, tend to be self-sacrificing, and sometimes acquire power from times of crisis. Charisma comes out of both a desire from followers to perceive charismatic characteristics in a leader, and certain leader behaviors that contribute to that aura.

Charismatic Leadership vs. Transformational Leadership

Charismatic leadership is similar to transformational leadership. One major difference is that transformational leaders may increase the esteem and effectiveness of followers, while the charismatic style emphasizes loyalty and might depend on keeping followers weak. Transformational leaders seek mostly to reach a utopian end, while charismatic leaders use communication expressively but may not seek an end game. The MLQ does not distinguish enough between the two.

12.4 New Challenges and Topics

Contemporary Workplace

Knowledge-Oriented Organizations

The contemporary workplace provides different challenges for leaders. Knowledge-oriented businesses are those that focus on the need for learning and adaptability, and too few models of leadership research have focused on these areas.

Teamwork

Teams are more common than they ever were, and leadership involves more interaction with groups as a whole, and as individual workers. There are also virtual teams, consisting of members who are widely dispersed either geographically or organizationally. They tend to be linked by a common goal and communicate using computers.

Telecommuting

Telecommuting brings with it challenges in monitoring and communicating with subordinates. It also takes away advantages like stature. Since telecommuting may involve a number of different locations, it can at times be challenging to actually track down an employee. Effective leaders of telecommuters would have to be very proactive about communication with employees. Unfortunately, in this type of work, it is more difficult to establish a transformational leadership style.

Temp Workers

When organizations pare down the number of employees they use, they tend towards hiring temporary workers. This lets them respond to market changes easily, but also provides more challenges to leaders who are working with less committed employees. Even if the employees are as productive and committed as other employees, they will often leave as quickly as they came in. This keeps them separate from true team relationships, and can decrease the job satisfaction of permanent employees by fostering a sense of impermanence.

Blurred Job Boundaries

Rapid changes in technology and how work is assigned mean that job titles and job descriptions are not as stable and defined as they once were. However, the new work environment does involve more organizational citizenship behavior, which can be encouraged by effective leadership.

Gender Issues

Leadership Demographics

Women tend to achieve equal qualifications to those that men achieve, and yet make up only a very small percentage of leadership roles. Lawsuits by women seeking leadership roles indicate that the problem isn’t lack of desire. One suggestion is that they don’t have the skill set or temperament for leadership. After a meta-analysis examining gender differences in cognition, communication, personality and physical abilities, the only substantial difference is in motor performance (throwing a ball!). Thus, the only reasonable explanation for the difference in leadership roles is gender-stereotypic expectations - that women in male-stereotyped occupations are punished for success because they are seen as deficient in womanly traits, judged as less likable and desirable, and more hostile. From a man behaving in the same way, hard actions are seen as competitive rather than bitchy. As transformational and transactional styles are increasingly linked to effectiveness, there are arguments that women may actually have greater potential for effective leadership if the attitudes and stereotypes of subordinates change.

It is important to recognize that different circumstances bring with them different challenges to women becoming leaders. Female managers are much more likely to describe the ideal leader as charismatic, team-oriented, and participative, but both men and women don’t think autonomous action is a good leadership characteristic.

Differences in Leadership Styles

Laboratory studies show that women lead by emphasizing interpersonal interactions, while men lead by emphasizing task completion. However, in field studies, no differences were found. In the real world, women tend to prefer democratic and participative styles instead of the autocratic styles that men tend to prefer. In an increasingly team-based and participatory workplace, it may be that people skills become more important. Keep in mind, though, that there is huge variation within genders, so that one female leader may be as different from the next as male leaders are from each other and from female leaders. The issue of how effective a leader may be is not with gender but with leadership competence.

Personality

The old trait approach did not function because personality was not nearly as measurable then as it is today. Now, with the Big 5, we know what we're looking for. Since personality traits are habitual ways of responding, they are behaviors that can be measured. Interestingly, personality plays a greater role in followers than in leaders.

Subordinates will judge their leader on personality traits. Each of the Big 5 seems to influence leadership, though even with the best combination of personality factors, a person might still be an ineffective leader. The best Big 5 traits for leadership vary per field - in the military, openness to experience is less important than conscientiousness, but in industry the opposite is true. Unfortunately, personality does not fully explain leadership behavior, and it may be that narrower personality traits are more valuable for study.

Cross-Cultural Studies

Culture has a strong effect on how leadership is expressed, as different cultures value different sorts of leaders. In a project called global leadership and organizational behavior effectiveness (GLOBE), a large-scale, cross-cultural study of leadership was conducted in over 60 countries. Data is just beginning to emerge, but it seems so far that universally accepted leadership attributes are: trustworthiness, justice, honesty, charisma, vision, positivity, encouragement, confidence-building, dynamic, team-oriented, decisiveness, intelligent, communicating, and win-win problem solving. Universally rejected attributes are leaders who are non-cooperative loners, ruthless, non-explicit, irritable, and dictatorial.

Isolating the findings of GLOBE to Europe, a list of universal and of culture-specific characteristics was able to be compiled. Many universal traits seem similar to the Big 5 personality traits. Universally, it seems that a transformational leadership style is best.

Diversity

Leaders must face a number of new challenges with the increasingly diverse workplace. They must reconcile how holidays are dealt with, what sort of rewards are chosen, etc. Every country also has different disadvantaged groups. A leader must embrace the transformational leadership style, devote effort to developing high-quality relationships, and become more aware of subcultures they may encounter so that they can be sensitive to them.

Guidelines

Leaders should help followers interpret events like threats, opportunities, and complex problems. They should build consensus about objectives and strategies, increase efficacy and commitment, foster trust, respect, and group identification, coordinate group member activities, facilitate learning, promote and defend the group, help develop member skills, and promote justice and ethics.

How can you define teams? - Chapter 13

13.1 Types

There are several reasons that the use of teams is increasing – time tends to be saved if many workers come together in a group, innovation and creativity are promoted, teams can integrate information more effectively, teams can be both fast and high-quality producers, and teams enable organizations to learn effectively.

Defining Groups and Teams

A team is an interdependent collection of individuals who work together towards a common goal and share the responsibility for specific outcomes for their organization. A group is more general and often not as connected. However, in recent I-O psychology research, teams and groups have become more interchangeable.

Team Types

Quality Circles

Quality circles are work groups, often composed of 6-12 members who meet often to identify work-related problems and come up with solutions to increase productivity and the quality of products. These have been found to be effective in the short term when they can still suggest changes that significantly improve performance, but that the ideas tend to run dry and groups end up being disbanded. Adopted often in the 1970’s and 1980’s, they became the basis for a number of different techniques now in use. Quality circles remain popular in Japan, where they were originally developed. This is likely due to cultural differences in collectivism vs. individualism.

Project Team

A project team is often created to solve a problem or set of problems, and then disband when the solution is implemented. This is also sometimes called a task force. Each member of a task team may come from a different part of the company, with an entirely different skill set. They often have clear deadlines for which they have to work together to come to fast and creative solutions.

Production Team

Production teams consist of a number of front-line employees who produce tangible output (like a car). This would include assembly-line workers, or designers. Members often have direct contact with other members and work interdependently. An autonomous work group is a type of production team that controls shift planning, the allocation of work, priorities, work tasks, and hiring recommendations. These are also called self-managing teams.

They were intended to improve the integration of social and technical systems. These groups often have an enriched work environment because members have more opportunity to develop new skills. This form of working is very effective in collectivist, low-power distance cultures. The success of these groups, however, is mixed. Members tend to have high satisfaction, yet job turnover is high because people end up doing what they are best at, and not being given the development opportunities promised.

Virtual Team

Virtual teams include widely dispersed members who work together using technological communication. Some of these groups may meet in person regularly, some don’t. Advantages include cost-effectiveness, increased access to experts, expanding labor markets, and being able to assign employees to multiple teams at one time. The challenges of global teams include time differences, cultural differences, and language barriers. The use of virtual teams is increasing, though training for them is lagging behind. Trust can be harder to establish among team members, but virtual collaboration behaviors can help increase trust and a sense of belonging. These include idea exchange without criticism, agreeing on responsibilities, and meeting deadlines. Virtual-socialization skills include soliciting feedback from team-members on the work process, expressing appreciation for task completion and ideas, and apologizing for mistakes. Virtual-communication skills include the rephrasing of unclear sentences and expressions, acknowledging that messages are received, and responding within one business day. These are especially important because virtual communication is more difficult than face-to-face interaction.

13.2 Team Effectiveness

The input-process-output model of team effectiveness is the basis of most recent team development models. Team inputs like team composition influence processes like communication, and outputs like productivity. Team outputs create a feedback loop that ultimately influences team inputs again.

Input

Context

Organizational context includes the rewards and training system of an organization, the physical environment, the technology it provides, and the managerial support available. This impacts team performance by enhancing and increasing interactions and effectiveness, and providing adequate resources for successful performance.

Task

Performance also depends on the task that is supposed to be performed. Teams are motivated by tasks that require multiple skills, are autonomous, meaningful, and provide performance feedback. Job design characteristics like team autonomy predict productivity and satisfaction.

Composition

Team composition refers to the different attributes that team members contribute, their skills, abilities, experiences, and personalities. A selection test for teamwork, called the Teamwork Test, has significant predictability for a team member's performance. Cognitive ability and personality traits are also predictors of teamwork performance. Interestingly, teams with 20-40% of their members being extroverted do better than those with many extroverts, and teams with few extroverts. This may be because extroverts tend to be good communicators, but too many may result in conflict and power struggles.

Shared mental models are organized ways for team members to think about how the team will function. They provide members with a common understanding of the task and the coordination necessary to complete it.

Diversity

Many teams are more diverse than they were before. There are two types of diversity: demographic diversity, the differences in observable attributes and demographic characteristics like age, gender, and ethnicity, and psychological diversity, differences in skills, ability, attitudes, beliefs, values, and backgrounds. People who are demographically different tend to be less committed to their organizations, possibly due to discomfort among team members. Psychological diversity, on the other hand, can cause greater difficulty in coordinating efforts but can help with the development of innovative and creative ideas. If considered carefully when selecting teams, psychological diversity can be an asset.

The negative effects of demographic diversity weaken if a team works together for a long time. The positive effects of psychological diversity strengthen with time. Group collaboration tends to increase, and a team generally becomes more effective.

Processes

Norms and Values

Norms are the informal and often unspoken rules that teams adopt to regulate the behavior of team members. Norms will be enforced if they help a team survive and simplify expected behavior. They may develop through natural behavior patterns that emerge over the course of interaction, or through explicit statements by team members.

Communication

Team performance is founded upon communication. Coordination loss is when a group becomes less functional as a result of poor communication that sends members in different directions, or fails to synchronize their work. Social loafing is the reduced motivation and performance that can occur in groups when there is a reduced feeling of individual accountability and a reduced opportunity for the evaluation of individual performance. It is associated with decreases in task visibility and distributive justice. To prevent this, one may increase the difficulty of the task, increase the uniqueness of individual contributions, lead individuals to guess that the success of the team is on their shoulders, and instructing the individual directly about their necessity to the team.

Team Cohesion

Cohesion is the degree to which team members want to remain in a team, and to which they are committed to team goals. Cohesive teams are stable and united, have strong norms, and pressure for conformity. They communicate well, and have more power over their members than low-cohesion teams do. Cohesion is related to successful team performance, especially in project teams. If two cohesive teams have conflicting goals, unrest is often the result. One way to prevent conflict is to increase contact between cohesive teams, possibly by having a member who is part of both teams.

Group Decision-Making

Decision-making in a group setting involves defining a problem, gathering information, discussing it, and deciding on a course of action. Groupthink is a way of thinking that can occur in a cohesive group. This is when the desire for agreement and conformity is larger than the motivation to make a realistic and effective decision. This is an example of the tendency groups have to make more extreme decisions than those an individual might make. This is group polarization. Interestingly, a group might either make riskier decisions than the individual (the risky shift phenomenon) or make much more conservative decisions. Groupthink has been responsible for a number of bad group decisions, from the Bay of Pigs invasion to the Challenger space shuttle launch.

Symptoms of groupthink include interpersonal pressure, illusions of invulnerability, and lack of open discussion with dissenting views. It can lead to extreme decisions, failures to adopt contingency plans, and distractions from the big picture objectives. One of the best ways to prevent groupthink is to seek out dissenting views and consider different perspectives and courses of action. Making subgroups can also be effective.

Outputs

Team outputs include team performance, innovation, and the well-being of team members. High team performance is, as mentioned, related to personality and cognitive ability of team members, communication, coordination, and team cohesiveness. Team outputs are usually, but not always, superior to individual performance. For some tasks, individual work is more effective. One interesting direction is in the development of multidisciplinary teams – if their team processes are effective their outputs tend to be more innovative. Well-being is strengthened by positive team processes, participation, task variety, and task significance.

13.3 Team Issues

Appraisal and Feedback

People in teams prefer team-based appraisal, except for the few individuals who have a high need for achievement. Team appraisal should provide teams with information on things they can do to further develop. Team-level evaluations are new, and teams tend to differ in responsibilities – this makes appraisal systems difficult to develop. What needs to be considered is in how far the outputs and behaviors of a team are measurable. This is easier for production teams. Often, this is done using 360 assessment of team performance.

ProMES

Described earlier, ProMES, the productivity measurement and enhancement system, is a motivational approach that uses goal-setting, rewards, and feedback. This can also be used with teams.

Roles

For the team role theory, Belbin proposed that an effective team is made up of a combination of people who are able to work in nine different team roles, based on their strengths and weaknesses. These roles are:

1. Plant: creative and unorthodox, solves problems but ignores details and may have difficulty communicating.

2. Resource investigator: extroverted and communicative. Explores opportunities and contacts, but can be over-optimistic and lose interest when initial enthusiasm is gone.

3. Coordinator: confident chairperson who clarifies goals and promotes decision-making. May be seen as manipulative and delegating too much.

4. Shaper: Dynamic, thrives under pressure, has drive and courage. May, however, provoke others or hurt their feelings.

5. Monitor evaluator: Strategic, discerning, accurate judge. Lacks drive and the ability to inspire and tends to be overly critical.

6. Teamworker: Cooperative, perceptive and diplomatic. Listens and averts friction. Indecisive and can be easily influenced.

7. Implementer: Disciplined, reliable and efficient, making things practical. Somewhat inflexible and slow to adapt to new ideas.

8. Completer: Conscientious, anxious, seeks out errors and delivers on time. Reluctant to delegate and sometimes overly detail-oriented.

9. Specialist: Single-minded, dedicated. Specialized knowledge and skills but only contributes on a narrow front and dwells on technicalities.

Further study into team roles has suggested that the Big 5 personality traits are more fitting. Belbin’s team role theory is still commonly used in Europe.

Development

Team development is how teams change over time. They develop in five stages:

1. Forming - the group members orient to one another, deal with inclusion issues and group consensus. They are polite, concerned with ambiguity and group goals. The members are compliant and the leader is active.

2. Storming - conflict erupts over procedures, antagonism towards leader and other group members occurs, ideas are criticized and coalitions are formed.

3. Norming - cohesiveness begins to grow, creating structure in the form of roles, standards, and relationships. Procedures are agreed upon and role ambiguity is reduced.

4. Performing - Task-orientation leads to high performance and goal achievement, decision-making and problem-solving occur through mutual cooperation.

5. Adjourning - Roles are terminated, tasks completed, and the group dissolves.

Deadlines and certain organizational settings can influence how a group develops, and whether they go through the stages listed here.

Training

Team training involves coordinating performance. This can come in the form of four approaches:

• Cross-training: rotating team members through different positions so they can understand the duties of their teammates and have a clearer image of the task at hand. This leads to better coordination.

• Team leader training: the leader of the team is trained in conflict resolution and coordination so they can increase team performance and effectiveness.

• Guided team self-correction training: team members identify problems and develop solutions. This includes after-event debriefings, identifying errors, feedback exchange, and planning for the future.

• Team coordination training: teaching members about information sharing, conflict management, problem-solving, clarifying roles, and decision-making. It can allow members to use team resources more effectively.

These approaches would benefit from research on cognitive and perceptual-motor abilities.

Culture

Hofstede’s culture and value distinctions directly impact teamwork. Differences within teams can affect interactions. Individualist cultures may find it more difficult to shift to teamwork than collectivist countries. Collectivist countries do very well with teamwork. When the time-orientation of team members differ, it can also provide challenges. Some members may be long-term, seeking out different goals than people with a short-term focus.

What are the different theories about organizations? - Chapter 14

A definition of an organization is a group of people with common goals, producing a service or product using a specific set of operating procedures. If this group is not organized the organization might become inefficient or even fall apart.

There are many ways of organizing, depending on the aims and means. There are many forces at work within an organization and integrating these forces properly can lead to a successful organization. These forces can be internal and external, for example departments within the organization, but also costumers, unions or suppliers.

Theories about organizations

The fist organizational theories mainly focused on the structure of an organization. Weber for example thought that organizing via bureaucracy would be the ideal situation. This means that there is a clear, formal hierarchy and division of labor, with clear procedures for everyone to follow.

Weber described organizations using four dimensions. Division of labor, delegation of authority, structure and span of control. In an organization chart these dimensions are clearly visible. The classic organizational theory states that there is an ideal way of forming such a structure, independent of any circumstances. This theory emphasizes on the organization trying to control each individual within the organization. Nowadays this theory is considered outdated and is therefore out of use.

McGregor, as a reaction to the classical theory, developed his Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X managers assume that their employees need to be controlled in order to meet the aims of the organization. Theory Y managers assume that their employees need to be motivated in order to meet the aims of the organization

Argylis developed the growth perspective. This perspective states that the natural growth of an individual can be either accelerated or slowed down by an organization. The natural growth of an individual can grow from passive to active; the individual can learn to think in an abstract, independent way. The theories of McGregor and Argylis are part of the Human Relation Theories.

There are also several Contingency Theories, developed by inter alia Woodward, Lawrence, Lorsch en Mintzberg. Woodward tried to develop the most effective organization design, by comparing small batch organizations, large batch organizations and continuous process organizations. His conclusion was that different organizational structures need different technologies.

Lawrence and Lorsch distinguished mechanistic organizations and organic organizations. A mechanical organization depends on formal rules and structures. There is a clear hierarchy and the span of control is small. An organic organization has a large span of control and the procedures are less formal. The decisions are made more an a middle level. Within one organization both structures can exist .

Mintzberg his theory states that an organization can be described by using four categories.

• The key mechanisms used by the organization for coordinating its efforts

• The functions and roles of people in the organization

• the extend of centralization or decentralization in decision making in the organization and

• the context in which the organization operates.

There are, according to Mintzber, five basic roles within an organization. The operating core, the strategic apex (e.g. a chief executive), middle line (managers), technostructure (e.g. engineers) and the support staff (e.g. HR).

If decisions are only made by the chief executive, than the organization is centralized. Centralization can either be vertical, but also horizontal, for example when the technostructure is also allowed to make decisions.

Organizations always have to interact with their environment, such as other parties (suppliers, customers etc.), but also with culture, national and international politics, shareholders, law, etc. etc. Katz and Kahn based their systems theory on this fact. This theory focuses on understanding the functioning of an organization.

Culture and Climate

Organizations are always associated with a certain feeling or (social) expectation. Organizations can use this in advertisements for example, or try to “deny” this association. Think for example about (social) associations you yourself make with organizations like Monsanto, Ben & Jerry's or Google.

Every organization has it's own cultural (internal) climate, next to that several subclimates can exist within one organization. Lewin distinguished two different types, the autocratic and the democratic work climate.
The democratic climate is a climate where individuals are allowed to take their on responsibilities and make decisions, the organization has few basic work structures in place. In an autocratic culture there are lots of procedures and a there is a clear structure in place; therefore there is a strict hierarchy.

There are several factors that can define a climate within an organization. Such as social cooperations and cohesion, leadership facilitation and support, job challenge and autonomy and role stress and lack of harmony.

Next to a climate an organization also has its own culture. Culture is a system in which individuals share meanings and common ways of viewing events and objects.
Basically a culture is a top-down phenomenon, a climate buttom-up.

If all individuals within an organization (more or less) share the same values there is a strong organizational climate. However, how an individual experiences the culture within the organization is inter alia dependent on how he or she interprets the communication by the management, individuals within one organization can therefore have a different view on the culture in that organization. Generally there is huge relation between the companies culture and the employee satisfaction.

If two companies with different cultures merge there can be a culture clash; this can have elaborate consequences. Even a small culture clash can have elaborate consequences for the efficiency of the company.

Because there is more and more international trade and cooperation, culture clashes between different nationalities are more common. There are four models that an organizations can use to address this problem. The first one is “etnocentrism”, in which the values of the parent company predominates. The second is the opposite option, “polycentrism”, the values of the local company predominate. “Regiocentrism” will combine both cultures and mix the values, the fourth “Geocentrism” is developing a global “new” way of handling situations.

The Hofstede model provides a way of describing different cultures by using different dimensions. This model can be used when applying one of the models above.

Safety values

Every organization has to deal with employee safety. It is a subject that involves all levels, the top level has to create a strategy and regulations and all employees need to follow these regulations. Next to that there are safety laws, either national or as provided by the union. There is a big relation between how the manager handles safety issues and how employees implement safety rules. Proper communication is paramount, both in preventing safety issues and in acting after a safety issue has occurred.

How safety rules are valued is big part of the organizations culture and climate. In order to create a climate in which safety is highly valued all levels within the organization have to committed to this subject. The management has a crucial part in this.

Socialization

As soon as a new employee enters an organization, the socialization process starts. In this process the employee will become aware of the shared values of a company; the climate and culture. You can even state that this process starts during acquisition, an individual will prefer a culture that matches his personality and visa versa.
The socialization process has a formal and an informal side. Rules and procedures are formal aspects, values and social rules (e.g. average communication style) are informal aspects.

When the socialization process is over, the individual has become a full team member. This can be a formal event, for example when the individual has completed a course. This can also be an informal event, for example when the individual is invited for a Friday evening drink with the team.

For both the organization and the employee it is important that the employee is content about his or her role within the organization. The socialization process can be easily used to achieve this.

Schneider developed the ASA model: Attraction, Selection and Attrition. First the organization will (A) attract a certain group of individuals with personalities that resemble the organizations current management. The management will also have a preference for hiring these personalities in their (S) selection. If an individual does not seem to fit in in the organizations climate, there will be (A) attrition. The individual will (in most cases) start looking for an other job; or the management will decide not to extend the contract.

Organizational Change

Organizational change can be a process or a goal, or sometimes both. Because of an increasing amount of mergers, joint ventures, takeovers, internationalization and reorganization in the last couple of decades, organization change is more and more common. Also it is very often not so much a choice to change nowadays, but an additional effect to an other event.

Lewin states that organizational changes happen in three stages. Unfreezing, where employees become aware of their values, changing, in which employees adopt these new values and refreezing, this is when the new values are stabilized.

Episodic change is an infrequent, discontinuous and intentional change within an organization. The change is planned and also announced by the management; certain goals need to be achieved. Episodic changes are usually difficult to achieve and can be stressful for employees.

The opposite is continuous change. These are smaller, ongoing, evolving and cumulative changes which add up to substantial change.

Change can be very difficult to achieve, resistance to change is common. Both the individual employee and the organization as a whole can be resistant. People are usually afraid of the unknown, also an employee can be afraid of loosing his job.

Organizational development

Organizational development and change is very often most successful when strategic (focus on the mission of the organization), team centered (focusing on team work rather than single contributors), statistical (data collection and analysis) and participator (engaging the members in the process) and quality focused.