The reasons for evaluating ethics in sexuality is for two reasons: the first is ethical and religious considerations must be taken into account when scientists describe sexuality. The second is the personal importance of ethics and the influence of ethics on personal decision making.

What are the basic concepts of ethics?

Fundamentally, ethics refers to right or wrong. It also refers to a set of principles put together by a specific group of people. When there are two things that are desired, ethics are used to choose among them. Sexual decisions are integrated in our pattern of decision making. Religion provides an ethical code and provides rules, rewards and sanctions. It helps create culture and thus is an important influence on individuals and shapes a society’s orientation towards sexuality. There are some basic terms that are important in the discussion about ethics:

• Hedonism is the belief that the goal of human life to pursuit pleasure, including eating drinking and sexual activity.
• Asceticism is the belief there is more to life than material components. They view sexuality as evil, bad or neutral because spiritual values and the avoidance of physical gratification are more important.
• Legalism is a method of ethical decision making and is concerned with moral principles and law. These principles come from outside of the individual, such as religion. The focus is the distinction between right and wrong.
• Situationism or contextual ethics is the belief there are broad guidelines for behaviour. Each decision is dependent on the context and individual itself. In sexuality, it focuses on relationships instead of rules.

Old religious and ethical systems are called old morality and the situationist approach is part of new morality.

What was the view of sexuality in ethical traditions?

Ethical traditions deal with norms on sexual behaviour, here are some examples of (mostly) Western sexual ethics in the past.

• Classical Greek philosophy believes that virtue results from wisdom and ascetism played an important role. Violent passions such as sex must be avoided. Pederasty is a sexual relationship between an older man and younger woman. The older man was the younger woman’s teacher. Later the Greeks life goal was ataraxia, which is the tranquil state between pain and pleasure. Such stoic thinking was the primary source of negativism towards sex in the Western tradition.
• Judaism has a positive view and sexual differentiation is an integral part of life. It is a deep and intimate part of a relationship, not only for reproduction. However, sexuality should never be separated from the social consequence and it needed to be regulated to avoid jealousy. The Hebrew scriptures see sexuality as an aspect of national and religious loyalty.
• Christianity is based on dualism, the separation between body and soul. The Christians insist on monogamy and oppose divorce. In the new testament, there were no regulations about marriage as an institution and there were no rules against homosexuality, the negativism about sex is not rooted in the bible, but in the philosophy of that time. The early Christian church value of celibacy is primarily about being a virgin, marriage was good and honourable. In the middle ages, the attitude towards sex for pleasure was highly negative. Sex was basically evil and only meant for reproduction. The protestants highly overestimated the disgust of sexual expression causing revolution in that age. Current trends view sex as a part of the divine creation, but also as a source of temptation. This causes serious conflict between religious groups.
• Humanism is non-religious thinking and values can be found in human experience. According to humanism there is a realistic approach needed, intimacy should be sought between individuals, but attentive to the human living, humanists are tolerant towards claims on right and wrong.
• Islam has a double standard on sexuality. Extramarital affairs are tolerated for men but can lead to honor killing for women. It recognises some rights for women, but this depends on the interpretation of the Koran. In Iran however, about seventy-three percent of women use birth control.
• Hinduism’s approach to sexuality includes virtually every approach there is. There are four different approaches that are acceptable: Kama, the pursuit of pleasure, Artha, the pursuit of marital wealth and success, Moksha, the pursuit of liberation and Dharma, the pursuit of moral life.
• Buddhism has an approach between hedonism and asceticism. However, males tend to live an ordinary and married life whereas monks cultivate ascetic wisdom by being celibate. Tantric Buddhism has a special interest in sex and perceives sex as the unity of all things. Sexual expression according to them can lead to enlightenment.

What are the contemporary issues in sexual ethics?

The concept of sexuality can cause conflicts in society because there is no consensus on the norms of sexual behaviour. The debate over the limits of sexuality resembles the clash between old and new morality. The view of old morality is also described as moralism, that there are objectified standards which need to be followed. The new morality is based on pluralism which is a more complex view of morality. They deny the objectivity and unchanging nature of morality and propose that the truth lies in the clash between different opinions and convictions. They are less likely to refer to religion or law and more likely to embrace freedom. Besides moralism, the pro-family position, rooted in religion and in favour of a ban on abortion, discrimination against gays and cohabitation before marriage.

1. Sex outside marriage is always seen as a sin in Western society. Fornication, sex before marriage and adultery, sex between persons who are married to others are condemned. This position has become less strict and there are four general rules for judging the morality of such decision. First is genuine respect for humanity, second is genuine affection between partners, third is avoidance of unwanted pregnancy and finally there should be openness and honesty between partners.
2. Contraception is opposed by most religions when it is artificial. However, Jews and Protestants promote family planning by married couples and most ethicists would say unmarried persons who are sexually active should use birth control.
3. Abortion is probably the most persistent issue where the conflict is between religious belief and political conviction. Is abortion better or more desirable than an unwanted pregnancy? Some Christians argue that an abortion can take place within three months of conception because the foetus does not have a soul yet. Then it is not a person and can thus not be murdered. Most liberal protestants and Jews hold this modified pro-choice position. The pro-life position is an absolute and strict position such as moralism, opposing to abortion.
4. Attitudes on homosexuality are starting to change. There are broadly three views on homosexuality, the first is the rejectionist position states that sexual acts between persons of the same gender are sins and the people are dreadful sinners. The second position is love the sinner but hate the sin, which is a modification on the rejectionist approach. They believe being homosexual is not sinful, but homosexual acts are. Full acceptance is the third position and deny or disbelieve the condemnation in the scriptures. They argue pro same-gender marriage and acceptance of LGB with members of the church.
5. HIV and AIDS are another ethical concern. Religious groups suffer to deal with the ambivalence of ministering persons with HIV or AIDS. Some argue AIDS is a punishment of god to sinful sexual behaviour. Other people try to educate members of the church on how to show compassion towards AIDS patients. The conflict is about the dignity and autonomy of the person and has both personal and public aspects. According to the middle-position, people in high risk groups should practice safe sex and get tested regularly. Another consideration is the high cost of HIV/AIDS patients for health insurance companies.

What is the connection between technology and sexual ethics?

The fast development of technology raises new moral issues without the time to resolve the older ones. The moral climate is changed by the wide availability of anticonception and abortion. Another issue is conceiving children without intercourse. Technologies such as in vitro fertilization or artificial insemination are approved by most to let infertile people have children. Some people argue that these techniques are “playing god” and should be forbidden. The exploitation of others is a concern, especially in surrogacy. The question is whether it is ethical to use procedures that can put an unborn baby at risk?

1. Orthodox Judaism may permit the techniques of AIH and IVF, but when a third party is present, this is seen as adultery.
2. The Roman Catholic position is open about child-conceiving methods on the conditions that the woman body and the men’s sperm should be used. He cannot collect the sperm by masturbation though.
3. A centrist position on these new reproductive theories is that in a marriage fertilization can be accomplished artificially between men and wife because the wife’s fallopian tubes may be blocked. It forbids the use of a stranger for the egg and only the men’s sperm. In that case, there might be issues with the age of the women.

Another issue of technologies on sexuality is human cloning or somatic cell nuclear transfer. A child born from cloning is genetically identical to the mother and might not have a sense of autonomy. Currently it is considered morally unacceptable to create a child using cloning methods. The newest development, therapeutic cloning is used in the treatment of diseases, such as Alzheimer. The development of technology cannot be stopped, but the moral implications must be adequately addressed in order to sustain the human values.

What is the way towards ethics of human sexuality?

Traditional sexual ethics are considered narrow and repressive by the new morality. However, the new morality has not proven to be everyone’s satisfaction. Opponents of the old morality say they fail to incorporate the joy of sexuality, human physicality and the undermining of human freedom by applying universal rules. The new morality tends to lean towards hedonism which affirms both the positive and negative side of sexuality. It may have pushed to far leaving people irresponsible and undisciplined about sexuality. Situational ethics includes the broad principles of respect, love and interpersonal responsibility but does not evaluate the actual effects of our actions. The middle ground is to incorporate the need for principles as guidelines and affirm the goodness and vital part of experience of human sexuality.