In the past, there was a strong focus on nurture when it comes to explaining gender differences. The rise of nature explanations can be explained by increasing possibilities to measure and understand the brain. This led to a focus on the brain and hormones. Explanations of gender differences often only consider nature or nurture rather than both.

Changes in sexual culture appear to be paralleled by changes in sexual behaviour and attitudes. Nonetheless, there are gender differences with regards to sexual behaviour and attitudes. Men have more permissive sexual attitudes (1), use more pornography (2) and report more masturbation compared to women (3). However, this may be a result of social stigma rather than actual

Sex refers to how an organism is organized with respect to reproduction. This is an innate and binary trait not altered by psychological traits.

There are three reasons why sex is binary:

1. Two sexes are required for reproduction and this is biologically determined.
2. Gender identity may change and is thus different from sex.

The gender binary assumes that one’s category membership is biologically determined (1), apparent at birth (2), stable over time (3), a powerful predictor of psychological variables (4) and salient and meaningful to the self (5). There is an idea that brains are gendered (i.e. male and female brains). In neuroscience requires two assumptions:

1. Sex is a

Sex-role identification refers to the degree to which we develop stereotypical gender traits (1), interests (2) and beliefs (3). Androgyny refers to a healthy integration of both masculine and feminine traits. This affords a greater cognitive and behavioural flexibility and is linked to better psychological health.

There are four reasons why gender should be viewed as

In the earliest diagnostic manuals, only inhibited sexual excitement was used to denote psychosexual disorders. However, this was indicated by a lack of a physiological response. In later diagnostic manuals, the FSAD diagnosis was added. However, the subjective arousal subtype was removed from this diagnosis in the DSM-4. This was done to make sure that the male-female similarity

In the Netherlands, the prescribed mental healthcare is captured in quality standards. These standards include recommendations or prescriptions regarding proper treatment. There are several aspects of care:

1. Prevention
2. Screening
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
5. Recovery and reintegration

Each step requires different decisions regarding care. The quality standards can help with the decisions in

The triggering of desire from competent sexual stimuli sometimes only occurs when sexual activity has begun for women. It is important to take the following things into account when describing a diagnosis:

• What is not within normal experience?
• What symptoms can be grouped into a disorder?
• What is the difference between a problematic environment

There are gender differences in sexual response and there is widespread recognition for conceptualizing women’s sexual problems differently from those of men. In the FSIAD diagnosis, there is no differentiation between sexual desire and sexual arousal as there is no evidence that these are two different things in women. Many women who were diagnosed with HSDD or FSAD

One perspective regarding sexual desire and arousal states that any psychological changes correspond to changes in the brain. The sex hormones are released into the blood by glands and travel to the brain. Here, they sensitize particular regions. This makes these regions more responsive to sexual stimuli and thoughts. This implies that a biological event (e.g. loss of

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was introduced to have a single cause (i.e. traumatic event). This is unique as there is a clear, environmental cause rather than a complex interplay between environmental and genetic factors, such as in other disorders. However, not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD. This leads to three main criticisms towards PTSD:

1. PTSD

Attachment provides the framework for how an individual perceives and interacts with the world. There is a heightened reliance on attachment relationships for adolescents when transitioning to adulthood. Bartholomew’s theory of attachment states that attachment should be explained in terms of how individuals perceive themselves and others in relationships. There are four attachment styles in adolescents and adults:

There was no clear recognition of the chronic, long-term post-traumatic stress reactions before the diagnosis of PTSD. The amygdala (1), hippocampus (2) and HPA axis (3) are imperative in the development and maintenance of PTSD. The hippocampus and amygdala are involved in the registration of dangerous events and the formation of memories about this.

Memories formed under

Both Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s attachment theory are used to conceptualize close interpersonal relationships. This theory states that people have core systems (i.e. attachments) and this is modifiable by experience.

Bowlby’s attachment theory states that humans have an innate attachment behavioural system. This motivates them to seek proximity to significant others (i.e. attachment figures). The main goal

There is no difference between people with a high and a low self-esteem with regards to the desire for connection. However, compared to people with a high self-esteem, people with a low self-esteem have several characteristics.

• They feel lonelier.
• They have less satisfying and stable relationships.
• They are more shy.
• They are more

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an effective treatment for alleviating PTSD symptoms. In EMDR, the patient recalls traumatic memories while simultaneously making horizontal eye movements. There are three hypotheses as to why and how EMDR works:

1. EMDR works by recalling aversive memories and eye movements are not necessary
   This states that prolonged exposure

Trauma-focused interventions refer to interventions that directly address memories of the traumatic event or thoughts and feelings related to the traumatic event (e.g. EMDR). Non-trauma focused interventions refer to interventions that do not directly address memories of the traumatic event or thoughts and feelings related to the traumatic event (e.g. stress inoculation training).

A combination of