Cognitive Psychology by K. Gilhooly, F. Lyddy, and F. Pollick (first edition) - Book summary
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Speech perception is the process by which we convert a stream of speech into individual words and sentences. The objective when either listening or reading is to understand what is being communicated. Prosody refers to the rhythm, intonation and stress patterns in speech.
There are few clear boundaries between words in spontaneous speech and sounds blend together as they are produced. Words in speech are not presented as distinct units. We understand everyone’s speech as language, although there are a lot of differences between people, such as sex, age, accent and so on. Recognition of the word precedes the completion of the heard word. Research into the amplitudes of words shows that there is no clear boundary between words.
There are two major problems of speech perception:
The foreign accent syndrome is a syndrome resulting from brain injury in which a person’s speech sounds like the accent of a foreigner. Infants tend to show a preference for their native language over an unfamiliar language. The development of word recognition requires the extraction of the regularities in a language that can be reliably used to distinguish word boundaries. Phonotactic constraints describe the language-specific sound groupings that occur in a language (e.g: some things are not allowed in a language: no English word starts with ‘XR’ and this can give a cue about word boundaries). Onset of a word is the initial phoneme or phonemes.
Slips of the ear occur when we misperceive a word or phrase in speech. It occurs when there is a misperception of a word boundary. These kinds of slips are also called mondegreens. Segmentation of incoming speech is biased towards the dominant patterns of the native language. Disfluency in speech can aid comprehension, as it can give the listener a cue that a less predictable word is coming.
Categorical perception is categorizing the incoming sound in a known category. This helps counteract the invariance problem. We are more sensitive to differences in speech sounds across phonetic categories than within. Voicing is when speech sounds are produced while the vocal cords are vibrating. People will categorize incoming sounds, even though it is rather different from the sounds they’re used to and they categorize it into categories of known phonemes. Infants can distinguish between the speech sounds of many languages at a young age, but this ability disappears as they acquire experience of the sounds of their own native language.
The left hemisphere language areas are accessed more efficiently by stimuli presented to the right ear. The right ear advantage for speech sounds refers to the finding that language sounds are processed more efficiently when presented to the right ear compared to the left. The effect of context can lead to the perception of absent speech sounds. The phoneme restoration effect describes the tendency to hear a complete word even when a phoneme is missing. This is a top-down influence, as the context drives the perception. Visual cues are also important for speech perception. The McGurk effect is a perceptual illusion that illustrates the interplay of visual and auditory processing in speech perception (e.g: if we see someone’s mouth make the movement for different phonemes than we actually hear, we are more likely to hear the phonemes that fit the movement of the mouth).
There are multiple models of speech perception:
Lexical access is the process by which we access stored knowledge about words. There are two tasks that investigate lexical access. Word naming tasks require participants to name a word, while response time is measured and sentence verification tasks present a sentence frame with a target word and the participant must decide if the word fits in the frame. There are several effects that influence lexical access:
The language used affects our perception of the situation (e.g: empty gas cans or gas cans). Parsing is the process by which we assign a syntactic structure to a sentence. We show a preference for one structure and interpretation and only when we realize that we made a mistake is when we go back. Reversible passives require more processing time. People with Broca’s aphasia don’t understand reversible passives. A phrase structure tree is a graphic representation of the syntactic structure of a sentence. Garden path sentences are grammatically correct but ambiguous sentences that bias the reader’s initial parsing. The goal of parsing is to assign incoming words to the appropriate role in the sentence as simply and efficiently as possible. There are two key strategies for this:
Garden path sentences require the person to revise their initial interpretation of the sentence, as new, conflicting, information is presented.
There are four main types of scripts:
The scripts can also be combined. The grapheme is the written representation of a phoneme. Transparent or shallow orthography uses a one-to-one correspondence between the letters and sounds. Opaque or orthographically deep languages are those where the relationship between letters and sound is more complex.
The word superiority effect refers to the finding that a target letter within a letter string is detected more readily when the string forms a word. We can fill in letters if they’re not there when reading. Context has a considerable influence on visual word recognition. People cannot read a word and when asked to name the colour of the word, instead of the word, interference often arises. This is called the Stroop interference. Saccades are fast movements of the eye made when reading or scanning an image. Fixation time on a word is reduced if the reader has managed to preview the word prior to fixating it and fixation time is reduced for words that are readily identified. As the text difficulty increases, the saccade length decreases and the number of regressions increases. The processing cost is greater for phonological textisms compared to orthographic textisms.
Coltheart’s dual-route model of reading proposes three routes for reading:
Pure word deafness (compromised route 1) is a deficit affecting the ability to recognize speech sounds, while comprehension of non-speech sounds remains intact. They can hear other sounds, just not speech. Other aspects of aphasia are absent. Pure word meaning deafness (compromised route 2) is a disorder in which the patient can repeat back the word, but cannot understand it.
Acquired dyslexia (alexia) refers to reading difficulties following brain injury. Surface dyslexia (route 1 is used) is characterized by a deficit in the reading of irregular words, while the reading of regular words is spared. Phonological dyslexia affects non-word reading, but real words can be read (route 2 is used). People with non-semantic reading can read regular and irregular words, but there is no comprehension of the words.
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the fourth interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Cognitive Psychology by K. Gilhooly, F. Lyddy, and F. Pollick (first edition)". The bundle contains the following chapters:
- 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.
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This bundle describes a summary of the book "Cognitive Psychology by K. Gilhooly, F. Lyddy, and F. Pollick (first edition)". The following chapters are used:
- 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.
This bundle contains everything you need to know for the fourth interim exam of Introduction to Psychology for the University of Amsterdam. It uses the book "Cognitive Psychology by K. Gilhooly, F. Lyddy, and F. Pollick (first edition)". The bundle contains the
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