Consciousness - An Introduction (ch22)

Which drugs affect consciousness and how? - Chapter 22

Definitions of ASC and SoC

The 'other form of consciousness' formulated by James is now called 'altered states of consciousness', abbreviated as ASCs. However, this concept is difficult to define. For example, there is the question of whether we should define ASCs objectively or subjectively. If we choose an objective definition, then we are talking about the causes of the changed consciousness. We would then make a definition based on narcotics. A problem, however, is that you do not include the subjective experience in the definition. For example, how can we know if people who are drunk are all reacting in the same way? Is it also possible that the same drugs produce different ASCs?

Perhaps it is better to define ASCs in terms of physical variables and behavioral measurements. In this context one can think of heartbeat and the expression of emotions. A problem with such an approach, however, is that few ASCs are associated with unique physical patterns or behavioral changes. For this reason, scientists are still cautious when it comes to giving a definition based on physical processes to the state of consciousness (SoC) to.

It is also possible to give ASCs a subjective definition. In practice, this approach is used the most. In these types of definitions, ASCs are described as states in which it feels as if there is a change in the normal pattern of mental functioning. These types of definitions give rise to other problems. ASCs are compared with normal patterns of mental functioning, but what exactly is a normal pattern of mental functioning? In addition, the use of subjective definitions ensures that people's experiences can not be compared properly, because they can not be measured in the same way.

What has changed in an ASC?

What exactly changes when someone experiences an ASC? We can say that consciousness has changed, but what exactly does this mean? There are a lot of differences among scientists about what consciousness means at all. Farthing states that we need to look at fourteen points if we want to know what exactly changes when someone experiences an ASC. He named:

1. attention,            

2. perception,           

3. imagination and fantasy,            

4. inner speech,           

5. memory,          

6. high-level thought processes,

7. meaning,

8. time perception,

9. emotions and expression,

10. alertness,

11. self control,

12. suggestibility,

13. body image, and

14. sense of personal identity.

With some ASCs all these factors change, with others only one or two. After this, we will go deeper into three of these factors, namely:

1. attention   

2. memory, and

3. alertness.

These three often change in the case of an ASC.

Attention can be influenced in two ways by an ASC. First of all, attention can be directed inwards or outwards. In dreams, for example, attention is directed towards the inside. ASCs introduce changes in this part of attention. For example, they can reduce sensory input, as in the case of meditation. An ASC can also ensure that attention is experienced very broadly or is very limited. For example, some people who are high have a lot of attention for the pattern on the carpet.

ASCs also affect memory. For example, narcotics affect how much can be stored in the short-term memory. It is also possible that a narcotic means that someone feels that the time is very fast or very slow.

In addition, ASCs influence the level of alertness. For example, meditation is accompanied by very little alertness and deep relaxation. This can lead to little need for food and oxygen. There are also situations where people become extremely alert. An example of this are religious rituals.

Thinking about the above three terms (attention, memory and alertness) means that we can imagine a kind of three-dimensional space in which all possible ASCs are positioned. If SoCs were accurately mapped in such a space, we could understand how each SoC is related to others. However, this task is not easy.

The mapping of jet consciousness

Early psychophysiologists attempted to place visual and auditory sensations in a multidimensional space. The first attempts were done by Tart. He described a simple space with two dimensions: irrationality and the ability to hallucinate. By placing a person in this space he imagined three large clusters corresponding to dreams, clear dreams and normal consciousness. All other positions in space can not be used or are unstable. These zones called Tart 'discrete zones of consciousness'. He stated that you could never be between two different states.

A second two-dimensional space was described by Laureys. His dimensions are completely different from the dimensions as described by Tart, namely: the level of arousal and the awareness of the environment and the self. Arousal refers to the physiological alertness or level of consciousness and depends on the arousal system of the brainstem. The awareness of the environment and the self refers to the content of consciousness and this requires a functional integrated cortex with subcortical loops. For most states, the level and content are positively correlated with each other.

The AIM model is a three-dimensional view developed by Hobson. AIM is the abbreviation for the three dimensions that make up this model:

(1) 'Activation energy': is equal to arousal and can be measured, for example by EEG,

(2) 'Input source': can vary between mere ecterne or purely internal sources of information.

(3) 'Mode': the ratio of amines in comparison to cholines.

Types of drugs

Psychoactive drugs affect mental functioning or consciousness. These drugs can be classified into different categories.

Stimulants

The first category consists of the stimulants. Examples include nicotine, caffeine, cocaine and amphetamine. Cocaine causes a feeling of intense pleasure, a lot of energy and a lot of self-confidence. It goes along with tolerance. Tolerance means that a higher dose is always needed to experience the same effect. People who use a lot of cocaine often suffer from hallucinations. They also have the feeling that there are beasts living under their skin.

Amphetamine (also called speed) is also a drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine. This drug also gives a lot of energy. In addition, there is tolerance and withdrawal with depression. The use of speed can also lead to delusions and hallucinations.

MDMA (also called xtc) is taken out of speed. MDMA has three important effects:

1. inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin,

2. activating the excretion of serotonin, and

3. activating the excretion of dopamine.

The use of MDMA goes hand in hand with a lot of energy and feelings of love and empathy. The effects do depend on the setting in which the drug is used. If someone uses MDMA in nature alone, this gives the feeling that the universe is one. At that moment someone feels a lot of love for the world. MDMA, like other drugs, is addictive and goes along with tolerance.

Depressants

Examples are alcohol, tranquillizers and sleeping pills. These agents have a different effect, for example facilitating the neurotransmitter GABA. Other mechanisms of action are effects on endogenous opioids and inhibition of adrenaline and acetylcholine.

Narcotics

Examples of this category are heroin, morphine, codeine and methadone. These drugs have a big influence on mood and are very addictive. However, they do not cause ASCs that help us to better understand the consciousness. An exception is opium.

Antipsychotics

Examples include tranquilizers such as chlorpromazine and lithium carbonate. These drugs are used to treat people with schizophrenia.

Antidepressants

Here are three types of:

1. tricylic antidepressants (TCAs),

2. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and             

3. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).

SSRIs ensure that serotonin remains available for longer and MAOIs ensure that noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin are less likely to be broken down.

Anesthetics

Anesthetic agents fall In this category. An example is ketamine. This means that the working memory, the episodic memory and the semantic memory are disturbed. This substance is rarely used as an anesthetic because it can cause symptoms of schizophrenia and nightmares.

Psychedelics

The effects of these drugs are very strange, but also varied. Examples of psychedelics are DMT, psilocybin (mushrooms) and LSD. In terms of structure they resemble one of four neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, dopamine, noradrenaline or serotonin. Often they are not addictive, but they can be dangerous.

Cannabis

In the past, cannabis was mainly used for medical purposes. This drug is often smoked or burned in special pipes. Describing the experiences of people who have used cannabis is not easy. They often indicate that it is indescribable what cannabis has for them. In addition, it is also the case that the effects per person are different. When using small amounts of experienced people intense pleasure (euphoria) and relaxation. Use of large quantities is accompanied by anxiety and paranoia.

Great psychoedelics

An example is mescaline. Using mescaline makes people feel that the world is perfect and colorful.

Resources: Blackmore; Susan. (2010). Consciousness, Second Edition An Introduction. Abingdon, Oxon: Taylor & Francis.