Cultural Psychology by S.J. Heine (third edition) – Summary chapter 6

There are several key characteristics of an independent self:

• The self is experienced as distinct from others.
• The key aspects of the self lie within the individual.
• The self is stable.
• The ingroup boundaries are permeable (i.e. high relational mobility).

There are several key characteristics of an interdependent self:

• The self is experienced as fundamentally connected to others.
• The key aspects of the self are grounded in relationships.
• The self is fluid and depends on the situation.
• The ingroup boundaries are not permeable (i.e. low relational mobility).

Identity is thought to come from inner attributes for people with an independent self. It is thought to come from social relationships for people with an interdependent self. People with independent selves represent themselves and others in different brain regions, whereas people with interdependent selves represent themselves and others in the same brain region.

Independent self-qualities exist by themselves (1), are stable across situations (2) and are abstract (3). Interdependent self-qualities are conceived in the framework of relations (1), are context-dependent (2) and imply responsibilities and appropriate behaviours (3).

The type of self-concept relates to the cultural values of the larger cultural context (1), physical constraints of the environment (2) and the social environment (3). The self-concept influences emotion (1), motivation (2), thinking style (3) and implicit theories of self (4). The self-concept also organizes information about the self (1), directs attention to information that is viewed to be relevant (2), shapes concerns people have (3), guides people in the choice of relationship partner (4) and influences how people interpret situations (5).

A collectivistic culture stresses the importance of being connected with others through certain cultural practices (e.g. co-sleeping), which nurtures an interdependent self. An individualistic culture stresses the importance of being self-sufficient through certain cultural practices (e.g. children having own bedroom), which nurtures an independent self.

There are differences within subcultures regarding the content of the self because of urbanization (1), lifestyle (2), education (3) and Westernization (4).

The entity theory of self (i.e. fixed mindset) states that aspects of the self are resistant to change across one’s life because they are innate. This is more prevalent in people with an independent mindset. The incremental theory of self (i.e. growth mindset) states that aspects of the self are malleable and can be improved through effort. This is more prevalent in people with an interdependent self.

People with independent selves demonstrate dissonance reduction through rationalizing one’s decision in ways that are consistent with one’s preferences, whereas people with interdependent selves demonstrate dissonance reduction through rationalizing one’s decision in ways that are consistent with other’s expectations.

Subjective self-awareness refers to attention directed outwards and not being consciously aware of the self. In subjective self-awareness, there is more first-person memory (1), high self-esteem (2) and inaccuracy in predicting one’s behaviour (3). It is related to the independent self. Objective self-awareness refers to attention directed inwards and being consciously aware of the self. In objective self-awareness, there is more third-person memory (1), more self-critique (2) and accuracy in predicting one’s behaviour (3). It is related to the interdependent self.

The location (e.g. city) might be relevant for the self and well-being because local contexts have different ecologies and histories might vary in subtle and implicit understanding of how to be and how to be well.

Religion and previous methods of cultivation appear to shape gender roles. Shifting cultivation is undertaken more by women and plough cultivation is undertaken more by men. This difference can shape gender roles in the future. Males tend to have more traditional gender views than females. Egalitarian views are more common in urbanized countries and individualism is positively correlated with egalitarian views.

There are cultural differences in whether gender identity is seen as essentialized. The gender that is associated with more power in a culture is more likely to be essentialized.

The Big Five personality characteristics might be flawed due to taking a Western stance in constructing the questionnaire as these five personality characteristics might not hold for people from a different culture. The main issue of employing personality tests across cultures are construct equivalence (1) and bias (2).