What is the self-determination theory and how is it incorporated in digital games?

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad motivational theory that distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and identified three basic psychological needs for well-being. Generally, when people are intrinsically motivated, they engage in an activity because they think the activity in itself is interesting, enjoyable, and congruent with theirselves. Vice versa, when people are extrinsically motivated, they engage in an activity because it is instrumental in the sense that it enables one to obtain rewards or avoid punishment. The three basic psychological needs according to the SDT are: (1) autonomy; (2) competence; (3) relatedness. These three needs are crucical for well-being and psychological growth. In this article, digital games are discussed within the SDT framework.

Which types of response-reinforcement schedules are there, and how are they incorporated in games?

To reinforce a certain behavior, rewards can be provided based on a number of responses or certain time interval. The reinforcements can be provided according to one of two schemes: a fixed ratio schedule or a variable ratio schedule. In a fixed ratio schedule a response will be reinforced after a certain fixed number of responses. This schedule is frequently used in games. For instance, after killing a certain number of monsters (response), one earns to level up (reinforcement). A fixed ratio 1 is a continuous reinforcement (thus each response is reinforced). This is probably the most common type of schedule used in games. Second, a variable ratio schedule reinforces the response after a variable, unpredicted number of responses within a set average response rate. For instance, a child may receive a cookie after four correct answers the first time, yet receives a cookie after three correct answer the second time. Classic examples of the use of a variable ratio schedule are gambling and lottery games. Further, browser games and Facebook also make frequent use of this type of schedule.

Do rewards have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation?

According to SDT, extrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity in order to obtain an outcome that is separable from the activity. In this manner, operant theory principles all are considered under extrinsic motivation. This raises the question whether rewards can have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation. The answer is twofold: yes, rewards can have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation, yet not all rewards are undermining. Basically, their influence on intrinsic motivation depends on which aspect is perceived as being more salient: informational or controlling. The informational aspects of rewards concern their role as performance or competence feedback. The controlling aspects refer to its use primarily for controlling people's behavior. It thus depends which aspect is more salient. If the informational aspect of the reward is salient, it does not negatively influence the intrinsic motivation. If the controlling aspect of the reward is salient, it does negatively impact the intrinsic motivation.

How are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation incorporated in games?

At first glance, one would think that intrinsic motivation is the core element of gaming. Why would someone play a game if he or she does not find it interesting and does not have fun? At second thought, however, we notice that many games included (meta-)rewards, such as achievements, badges, trophies, or level-ups. Game designers might think that it does not really matter whether plays are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Yet, this does matter. Research suggests that extrinsic motivation in games is related with problem gaming: there is an association between extrinsic motivation and increased playing time, resulting in a lower well-being of players. Yet, as mentioned above, the undermining effect of extrinsic rewards in games depends on whether the reward is perceived as controlling or informational. For instance, feedback (an informational reward) is related to intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic motivation.

How are the three basic psychological needs related to digital gaming?

Recall that the SDT refers to three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to feeling volitional in one's own action and being able to fully endorse them. Competence refers to feeling effective, capable, and optimally challenged. Vice versa, activities that are too easy or too difficult decrease competence. Lastly, relatedness refers to experiencing a sense of belonginess to others. In addition to being important for well-being, autonomy and competence play a key role in intrinsic motivation.

These three basic needs are incorporated in digital gaming. First, choice is an essential element of games. Modern games with open worlds, for example, allow gamers to freely walk around, change worlds, buy products, and so forth. Hence, gamers are offered several opportunities, which enables them to feel autonomous. Second, feedback appears to be a crucial aspect in games. Without feedback, the player is commonly not able to understand the rules and structure of the game worl, how one is performance, and whether the actions have consequences or not. All of this would result in a low sense of efficacy. Thus, feedback is crucially related to competence needs. In addition, feedback is connected with autonomy as well, because the choices one makes may become meaningless without feedback. Another important aspect here is game difficulty. A third important aspect of games is game difficulty. Games should provide an optimal level of challenge to satisfy the player's competence needs. Games that are too easy or too difficult will cause boredom or frustration. Commonly, one can "level up" in games, allowing to adjust for the competence level of the player. Finally, relatedness is included when a game is developed for multiple players or when the game is played in a digital word with other real or victional players.

To conclude, the SDT provides a concise framework to better understand the motivational aspects and fulfillment of the three basic needs in gamer psychology. Game designes may use this knowledge to implement game mechanisms that enable autonomy, competence, and relatedness to enhance the player experience.