Psychological testing and assessment (9th edition)
Cohen, R. J. & Swerdlik, M. E. (2018)
Chapter 12
Personality assessment methods

Objective methods

Objective methods of personality assessment: characteristically contain short-answer items for which the assessee’s taks is to select one response from the two or more provided. The scoring is done according to set procedures involving little, in any, judgment on the past of the scorer.
As with test of ability, objective methods of personality assessment may include items written in a multiple-choise true-false, or matching format.

Whereas a particular response on an objective ability test may be scored correct or incorrect, a response on an objective personality test is scored with reference to either the personality characteristic(s) being measured or the validity of the respondent’s pattern of responses.

Objective personality tests share many advantages with objective tests of ability.

• The items can be answered quickly
• It allows the administration of many items covering varied aspects of the trait or traits the test is designed to assess
• If the items on an objective test are well written, then they require little explanation
  This makes them suited for both computerized and group administration.
• Objective items can be scored quickly and reliably by varied means
• Analysis and interpretation may be almost as fast as scoring

How objective are objective methods of personality assessment?

‘Objective’ is something of a misnomer when applied to personality testing and assessment.
Objective personality tests typically contain no correct answer.
The selection of a particular choice from multiple-choice items provides information relevant to something about the testtaker.
Another issue related to the use of the adjective ‘objective’ with personality tests concerns self-report and the distinct lack of objectivity that can be associated with self-report.
Some respondents may lack the insight to respond in what could reasonably be described as an objective manner.

Objective personality tests are objective in the sense that they employ a short-answer format, one that provides little, if any, room for discretion in terms of scoring.

Projective methods

The projective hypothesis: holds that an individual supplies structure to unstructured stimuli in a manner consistent with the individual’s own unique pattern of conscious and unconscious needs, fears, desires, impulses, conflicts, and ways of perceiving and responding.

The projective method: a technique of personality asssessment in which some judgment of the assessee’s personality is made on the basis of performance on a task that involves supplying some sort of structure to unstructured or incomplete stimuli.
Almost any relatively unstructured stimulus will do for this purpose.

Unlike self-report methods, projective tests are indirect methods of personality assessment.
Assessees aren’t being directly asked to disclosure information about themselves. Their task is to talk about something else.
Through such indirect responses the assessor draws inferences about the personality of assessees.

On such a task, the ability of examinees to fake is greatly minimized.
Also minimized is the testtaker’s need for great proficiency in the English language.
Some projective methods may be less linked to culture than are other measures of personality.

Projective measures tap unconscious and conscious material.

Projective methods were once the technique of choice for focusing on the individual from a purely clinical perspective.

Inkblots as projective stimuli

The Rorschach

Hermann Rorschach.
Developed a ‘form interpretation test’ using inkblots as the forms to be interpreted.
The test contains 10 cards packaged in a cardboard box, that’s it. No explanation or manual.

During the inquiry the examiner attempts to determine what features of the inkblot played a role in formulating the testtaker’s percept.
This provides information that is useful in scoring and interpreting the responses.

Testing the limits enables the examiner to restructure the situation by asking specific questions that provide additional information concerning personality functioning.
Other objectives of limit-testing

• To identify any confusion or misunderstanding concerning the task
• To aid the examiner in determining if the testtaker is able to refocus percepts given a new frame of reference
• To see if a testtaker made anxious by the ambiguous nature of the task is better able to perform given this added structure.

Hypotheses concerning personality functioning will be formed by the assessor on the basis of all the variables outlined as well as many additional ones.

• Location
  The part of the inkblot that was utilized in forming the percept
• Determinants
  The qualities of the inkblot that determine what the individual perceives
• Content
  The content category of response
• Popularity
  The frequency with which a certain response has been found to correspond with a particular inkblot or section of an inkblot
• Form
  How accurately the individual’s perception matches or fits the corresponding part of the inkblot.

The scoring categories are considered to correspond to various aspects of personality functioning.
Hypotheses concerning aspects of personality are based both on the number of responses that fall within each category and the interrelations among the categories.

John E. Exner Jr
Comprehensive system for the test’s administration, scoring and interpretation.
Exner’s system has been well received by clinicians and is the single system most used and most taught today.

Evaluations of the Rorschach’s psychometric soundness tended to be mixed at best.
Exner’s system brought a degree of uniformity to Rorschach use and thus facilitated comparison of research studies.
There are a number of reasons why the evaluation of the psychometric soundness of the Rorschach was tricky business

• Because each inkblot is considered to have a unique stimulus quality, evaluation of reliability a by split-half would be inappropriate

Exner’s system has advanced the cause of Rorschach reliability, the inter-score reliability.

Rorschach is still a tool that is enthusiastically used, taught, and researched by many contemporary psychologists.

Pictures as projective stimuli

It can be any kind of pictures.
Thematic apperception test (TAT): the most widely used of all the picture storytelling tests

The thematic apperception test (TAT)

Originally designed as an aid to electing fantasy material from patients with psychoanalysis.
Consists of 31 cards, one of which is blank.
The 30 picture cards contain a variety of scenes designed to present the testtaker with ‘certain classical human situations’.
Testtakers are introduced to the examination with the cover story that it is a test of imagination in which it is their task to tell what events led up to the scene in the picture, what is happening at that moment, and what the outcome will be. Testtakers are also asked to describe what the people depicted in the cards are thinking and feeling.

In the TAT manual, examiners are advised to attempt to find out the source of the examinee’s story.

In everyday clinical practice, examiners tend to take liberties with various elements pertaining to the administration, scoring and interpretation of the TAT.
The administering clinician selects the cards that are believed likely to elicit responses pertinent to the objective of the testing.

The raw material used in deriving conclusions about the individual examined with the TAT are

• The stories as they were told be the examinee
• The clinician’s nots about the manner in which the examinee responded to the cards
• The clinician’s notes about extra-behaviour and verbalisations

Analysis of the story content requires special training.

Many interpretive systems incorporate, or are to some degree based on

• Need: determinants of behaviour arising form within the individual
• Press: determinants of behaviour arising form within the environment
• Thema: a unit of interaction between needs and press

Although a clinician may obtain bits of information form the stories told about every individual cart, the clinician’s final impressions will usually derive form a consideration of the overall patterns of themes that emerge.

Problems with TAT

• General lack of standardization and uniformity
• Situational factors may affect test responses
• It is impossible to determine the inter-item reliability of the test
• Validity
  Implicit motive: a nonconscious influence on behaviour typically acquired on the basis of experience.
• Highly susceptible to faking

Other tests using pictures as projective stimuli

There are many.
The rationale for creating some of these tests has to do with their proposed contribution in terms of greater testtaker identification with the images depicted in the cards.
There are other types of projective stimuli that also use pictures as projective stimuli.

Words as projective stimuli

Semistructured: projective methods that employ words or open-ended phrases and sentences.
They allow for a variety of responses, but they still provide a framework within which the subject must operate.

Word association tests

Word association: a task that may be used in personality assessment in which an assessee verbalizes the first word that comes to min in response to a stimulus word.

Word association test: a semistructured, individually administered, projective technique of personality assessment that involves the presentation of a list of stimulus words, to each of which an assessee responds verbally or in writing with whatever comes immediately to mind first upon fist exposure to the stimulus word.

Continues to be used in experimental research and clinical practice.

Sentence completion tests

Sentence completion: a task in which the assessee is asked to finish an incomplete sentence or phrase.
Sentence completion test: a semistructured projective technique of personality assessment that involves the presentation of a list of words that begin a sentence and the assessee’s task is to respond by finishing each sentence with whatever word or words come to mind.

Sentence completion stems: may be developed for use in specific types of settings for specific purposes.
Can be relatively atheoretical or based on a theory.

In general, a sentence completion test may be a useful and straightforward way to obtain information form an honest and verbally expressive testtaker about diverse topics.

The tests have a high degree of face validity.
Because the face validity there comes a certain degree of transparency about the objective of the test. For this reason, sentence completion tests are perhaps the most vulnerable of all the projective methods to faking on the part of an examinee intent on making a good – or bad- impression.

Sounds

Skinner created a series of recorded sounds much like muffled, spoken vowels, to which people would be instructed to associate.

The test proved not to differentiate between different groups of subjects who took it.

The production of figure drawings

A relatively quick, easily administered projective technique is the analysis of drawings.
Figure drawings are an appealing source of diagnostic data because the instructions for them can be administered individually or in a group by nonclinicians.

Figure-drawing tests

Figure drawing test: a projective method of personality assessment whereby the assessee produces a drawing that is analysed on the basis of its content and related variables.

Draw A Person (DAP) productions have been formally evaluated through analysis of various characteristics of the drawing.

Figure-drawing tests had a rather embattled history with regard to their perceived psychometric soundess.
In general, the techniques are vulnerable with regard to the assumptions that drawings are essentially self-representations and represent something far more than drawing ability.

Projective methods in perspective

Critics have attacked projective methods one grounds related to

• Assumptions inherent in their use
• Situational variables that attend their use
• Several psychometric considerations

Assumptions

• The assumption is that the more ambiguous the stimuli, the more subjects reveal about their personality.
  • The projective stimulus is only one aspect of the ‘total stimulus situation’.
  • The projection on the part of the assessee does not increase with increases in the ambiguity of projective stimuli
• The responses evoked by the projective stimuli are of idiosyncratic nature
  • It must be considered that there are stimulus properties that affect the subject’s responses
• Projection is greater onto stimulus material that is similar to the subject
  • Been found questionable
• Unconsciousness exists

Situational variables

Situational variables significantly affected the responses of experimental subjects.
There is strong evidence for a role of situational and interpersonal influences in projection.

In any given clinical situation, many variables can be placed in the mix.
The interaction of these variables ma influence clinical judgments.

Psychometric considerations

The psychometric soundness of many widely used projective instruments has yet to be demonstrated.
There are methodological obstacles in research protectives because many test-retest or split-half methods are inappropriate.

Objective tests and projective tests: how meaningful is the dichotomy?

So-called objective test are affected by response styles, malingering and other sources of test bais.
Testtakesr may lack sufficient insight or perspective to respond ‘objectively’ to objective test items.

Behaviour assessment methods

The emphasis in behavioural assessment is on ‘what a person does in situations’ rather than on inferences about what attributes he ‘has’ more globally.
Predicting what a person will do is thought to entail an understanding of the essessee with respect to both close scrutiny, though more narrowly defined and more closely linked to specific situations.

The more traditional administration of a psychological test or test battery to a client might yield signs that then could be inferred to relate to the problem.
The clinician employing the sample or behavioural approach to assessment might examine the behavioural diary that the client kept and design an appropriate therapy program on the basis of those records.

An advantage of the sign approach over the sample approach is that the client might be put in touch with feelings that even she was nor really aware of before assessment.
The client may have been consciously (or unconsciously) avoiding certain thoughts and images.
Behavioural assessors seldom make such deeper-level inferences.
Behavioural assessors do, however, tend to be more empirical in their approach, as they systematically assess the client’s presenting problem both from the perspective of the client and form the perspective of one observing the client ins social situations and the environment in general.

The behaviourally oriented counsellor or clinician relies on what the client does and has done for guideposts to treatment.

Behavioural tests should be useful.

Differences between traditional and behavioural approaches to psychological assessment exist with respect to several key variables

• In traditional approaches to assessment, data is typically used to diagnose and classify
  In behavioural approaches, assessment data is used to describe targeted behaviours and maintaining conditions.
• Causes of behaviour
  Traditional assessment is more likely to evaluate the traits and states of the individual
  Behavioural assessment is more likely to focus attention on the conditions in the environment that were instrumental in establishing a targeted behaviour, as well as the environmental conditions that are currently maintaining the behaviour.
• Traditional approaches draw inferences about personality from samples of behaviour
  Behavioural approaches focus on the meaning (purpose, utility, or consequences) of the behaviour itself
• In traditional assessment, an individual’s behavioural history is afforded great weight, almost to the point of being predictive of future behaviour
  In behavioural approaches, behavioural history is important to the extent that it provides baseline information relevant to an individual’s learning history
• In traditional approaches, the timing of assessment tends to be pre-, and perhaps post-therapeutic intervention
  In behavioural approaches the timing tends to be more ongoing.

The who, what, when, where, why, and how of it

Behaviour is the focus of assessment in behavioural assessment.

Who

Who is the assessee?
The hallmark of behavioural assessment is the intense study of individuals.

Who is the assessor?
Depending on the circumstances, the assessor may be a highly qualified professional or a technician/assistant trained to conduct a particular assessment.
An assessor may also be the assessee. Research frequently entails measurement by self-report.

What?

The behaviour or behaviours targeted for assessment will vary as a function of the objectives of the assessment.
What constitutes a targeted behaviour will typically be described in sufficient detail prior to any assessment.
For the purposes of assessment, the targeted behaviour must be measurable, quantifiable in some way.

When?

Assessment behaviour is typically made at times when the problem behaviour is most likely to be elicited.

• Frequency or event recording
  Each time a behaviour occurs, it is recorded
• Interval recording
  Occurs only during predefined intervals of time
• Intensity of the behaviour
  • Duration
  • Ratio or percentage of time
    Timeline followback (TLFB) methodology: respondents are presented with a specific calendar time period and asked to recall aspects of their behaviour

Where?

Behavioural assessment may take place anywhere, preferably in the environment where the targeted behaviour is most likely to occur naturally.

Why?

In general, data derived from behavioural assessment may have several advantages over data derived from other means.
Data derived from behavioural assessment can be used:

• To provide behavioural baseline data with which other behavioural data may be compared
• To provide a record of the assessee’s behavioural strengths and weaknesses across a variety of situations
• To pinpoint environmental conditions that are acting to trigger, maintain, or extinguish certain behaviours
• To target specific behavioural patterns for modification through interventions
• To create graphic display useful in stimulating innovative or more effective treatment approaches

Behavioural assessment is typically not linked to any particular theory of personality, and patient progress tends to be gauged on the basis of documented behavioural events.

How?

The answer to how behavioural assessment is conducted varies according to the purpose of the assessment and analysis.

Varieties of behavioural assessment

Behavioural assessment may be accomplished through various means, including:

• Behavioural observation and behaviour rating scales
• Analogue studies
• Self-monitoring
• Situational performance methods

Behavioural observation and rating scales

Behavioural observation: involves watching the activities of targeted clients or research subjects and, typically, maintaining some kind of record of those activities.
Sometimes self-observation is more appropriate than behavioural observation.

In some instances, behavioural observation employs mechanical means.
Recording relieves the clinician of the need to be physically present when the behaviour occurs and allows for detailed analysis of it at a more convenient time.
Factors noted in behavioural observation will typically include: the presence or absence of specific, targeted:

• Behaviours
• Behavioural excesses
• Behavioural deficits
• Behavioural assets
• The situational antecedents and consequences of the observed behaviours

Behavioural observation may take many forms.

Behaviour rating scale: a preprinted sheet on which the observer notes the presence or intensity of targeted behaviours, usually by checking boxes or filling in coded terms.
Behaviour rating scales and systems may be categorized in different ways.

• A continuum of direct to indirect
  Applies to the setting in which the observed behaviour occurs and how closely that setting approximates the setting in which the behaviour naturally occurs.
  The more natural the more direct measurable.
• Broad-band and narrow-band instruments
  Broad-band instruments are designed to measure a wide variety of behaviours
  Narrow-band focuses on single, specific constructs.

Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring: the act of systematically observing and recoding aspects of one’s own behaviour and/or events related to that behaviour.
Self-monitoring is different from self-report.
Self-monitoring may be used to record specific thoughts, feelings, or behaviours.
The utility of self-monitoring depends in large part on the competence, diligence, and motivation of he assessee, although a number of ingenious methods have been devised to assist in the process or to ensure compliance.

Self-monitoring is both a tool of assessment and a tool of intervention.
In some instances, the very act of self-monitoring may be therapeutic.

Any discussion about behavioural assessment, and particularly self-monitoring, would be incomplete without mention of the psychometric issue of reactivity.
Reactivity: the possible changes in an assessee’s behaviour, thinking, or performance that may arise in response to being observed, assessed, or evaluated.

Analogue studies

An analogue study: a research investigation in which one or more variables are similar or analogous to the real variable that the investigator wishes to examine.
Very broad and the term analogue study has been used in various ways.

Analogue behavioural observation: the observation of a person or persons in an environment designed to increase the chance that the assessor can observe targeted behaviours and interactions.
The person or persons in this definition may be clients or research subjects.
The targeted behaviour depends on the objective of the research.

Situational performance measures

Situational performance measure: a procedure that allows for observation and evaluation of an individual under a standard set of circumstances.
Typically involves performance of some specific task under actual or simulated conditions.
Common to all situational performance measures is that the construct they measure is thought to be more accurately assessed by examining behaviour directly than by asking subjects to describe their behaviour.

Leaderless group technique: a situational assessment procedure wherein several people are organized into a group for the purpose of carrying out a task as an observer records information related to individual group members’ initiative, cooperation, leadership, and related variables.
The leaderless group situation provides an opportunity to observe the degree of cooperation exhibited by each individual group member and the extent to which each is able to function as part of a team.

Role play

The technique of role play can be used in teaching, therapy, and assessment.

In general, role play can provide a relatively inexpensive and highly adaptable means of assessing various behaviour ‘potentials’.

Psychophysiological methods

Psychophysiological: physiological indices that are known to be influenced by psychological factors.
Biofeedback:a class of psychophysiological assessment techniques designed to gauge, display, and record continuous monitoring of selected biological processes.

Plethysmograph: a biofeedback instrument that records changes in the volume of a part of the body arising from variations in blood supply.
Penile plethysmorgraph: an instrument designed to measure changes in blood flow, but more specifically blood flow to the penis.
Phallometric data: the record from a study conducted with a penile plethysmograph.

Polygrap: lie detection.
Reliability of judgments made by polygraphs is a matter of great controversy.

Unobtrusive measures

Unobtrusive measure: a telling physical trace or record. (like garbage)
Unobtrusive measures do not require the presence or cooperation of respondents when measures are being conducted.

Issues in behavioural assessment

How best to assess the psychometric soundness of behavioural assessment is debatable.
Questions arise about the appropriateness of various models of measurement.

Generalizability theory seems more applicable to behavioural assessment than to the measurement of personality traits.

• There must be an acceptable level of inter-rater reliability among behaviour observers or raters
  Contrast effect: a behavioural rating may be excessively positive (or negative) because a prior rating was excessively negative (or positive).
  To combat contrast effects and other types of rating error, rigorous training of raters is necessary.
  • Composite judgment: an averaging of multiple judgments
    Some types of observer bias cannot practically or readily be remedied.
• Reactivity
  People react differently in experimental than in natural situations
  Solution: hidden observers
• Equipment costs and the costs of training behavioural assessors