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Why do we study the development of children? - Chapter 1
- How do we raise children?
- What did the Romanian adoption study find?
- How do we choose social policies?
- How can we understand human nature?
- What are historical ideas about child development?
- What are the important aspects of a child’s development?
- Can children learn to become more intelligent?
- What methods can be used to study the development of children?
- What are the ethical issues?
How do we raise children?
The development of a child can raise various questions in multiple levels of society. A question that most parents have is how they can teach their children how to deal with anger and other negative emotions. Sometimes parents spank their children, but this has turned out to be counterproductive. However, several effective ways are known to control the anger of a child. One way is to respond sympathetically to children who show negative emotions, so children are able to cope in a better way with the situation causing the negative emotions. Another way is to help the children look for positive alternatives when they show negative emotions.
What did the Romanian adoption study find?
A Romanian study investigated children who grew up in orphanages under neglecting circumstances in Romania. Due to the policy in orphanages at the time, there was a lack of (physical) contact for the orphans. At the time these children were adopted by British families, they were often found to be malnourished, lagging behind in physical and intellectual development, and socially immature. The study compared these orphans with adopted children from Great Britain. At the age of six, Romanian orphans were still lagging behind in their physical, intellectual, social, and emotional development. In particular, social and emotional limitations persisted into adulthood. These developmental delays were found to be related to significantly low activation of the amygdala. The main conclusion of this study is that the timing of experiences influences their consequences.
How do we choose social policies?
Furthermore, the development of a child can raise questions about a responsible social policy, which is one more reason to learn about child development. Research can be done using meta-analysis, a method combining results from independent studies to arrive at conclusions based on all the studies. The question can arise whether it is better to invest in the prevention of developmental problems in children, or to invest in solving developmental problems that already exist in children.
For example, think about the reliability of a young child's courtroom testimony. It may happen that the judge believes the statement of a child, whereby an innocent person is punished, or vice versa, a guilty person can
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How does prenatal development work? - Chapter 2
- How does prenatal development work?
- What is conception?
- What processes of development take place?
- What does prenatal development look like?
- How does a fetus behave?
- How does the fetus learn?
- What kind of negative events can take place during prenatal development?
- How does the process of birth take place?
- How does a newborn baby behave?
- What negative events can take place at birth?
How does prenatal development work?
Throughout history, many different ways to view prenatal development can be found. Aristotle rejected the idea of epigenesis, the emergence of new structures and functions during development.
For example, the Beng in West Africa believe that every baby is a reincarnation of an ancestor. The spirit of the ancestor, the wru, does not yet want earthly life and retains a double existence, traveling back and forth between the present and the wrugbe, the spirit world. If the child dies before the umbilical stump has dropped of, there is no funeral because it is assumed that the child is not yet a person and has returned to the spirit world.
What is conception?
Gametes are reproductive cells (ovum or sperm) that contain only half of the genetic material of all other cells in the body. Gametes are produced by meiosis, a special type of cell division where the egg cell and sperm cell receive only one member from each of the 23 chromosome pairs. An egg cell and a sperm cell together form a complete set of 23 chromosome pairs.
Conception is the joining of an egg cell from the mother and a sperm cell from the father. During the ejaculation, the sperm cells travel through the uterus to the egg for 6 to 7 hours. Only 200 of the 500 million sperm cells survive this journey. It is a process like in Darwin's theory: survival of the fittest. There can be several reasons why sperm cells does not make it to the egg cell. First, there may be problems with the sperm cells themselves, which is sometimes based on a genetic defect. It is also possible that sperm cells get entangled with each other during the trip. Finally, it is possible that the sperm cells go into the fallopian tube that does not harbor an egg. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell. A fertilized egg is called a zygote. By a chemical reaction, which occurs when a sperm cell reaches the egg cell, a layer is formed around the egg, so that other sperm cells can no longer reach or fertilize the egg cell. In the first two weeks, the fertilized cell is a zygote.
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How do nature and nurture play a role in development? - Chapter 3
The first studies on development were trying to answer the question of which of the following is more influential on the child’s development: the genes or the environment. Since the discovery of the DNA, the basic component of heredity, enormous advances have been made in deciphering the genetic code. Researchers have mapped the entire genome, the complete set of genes of an organism. Later studies on development found both, the genes and the environment, as important influences in the development of a child. The genes and the environment interact continuously with each other, therefore both influence the development of a child.
- Which genetic and environmental factors play a role?
- What are behavioral genetics and what research designs can be used?
- How can differences in heritability be used in research?
- How can differences in environmental factors be used in research?
- How does the brain develop?
- What is the importance of experience?
- What processes of growth and development take place in the body?
Which genetic and environmental factors play a role?
There are three elements that are important in the development of a child: genotype, phenotype and the environment. Genotype is the inherited genetic material of an individual. Phenotype is the observable expression of the genotype, namely the body characteristics and behavior. The environment is an all-encompassing aspect of an individual and his / her surrounding aspects, unlike the genes.
These three elements are involved in five relationships that are fundamental to the development of every child:
How do the genes of the parents influence the child's genotype?
Chromosomes are molecules of the DNA containing genetic information. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is made of molecules containing all biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism. These instructions are packaged in genes, sections of chromosomes that are the basic heredity unit of all living beings. People normally have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, in each cell nucleus. Except in the germ cells, these only contain 23 chromosomes.
A child shows similarities on the general human level (the child has feet and arms) and on an individual level (the child shares similarities with family members). Different mechanisms ensure the genetic diversity between people. One is mutation. Mutation is a change in the components of the DNA. Another mechanism is crossing. Crossing over is a process where parts of DNA swap from one chromosome to another chromosome. Crossing over promotes the variability between individuals.
Every person has one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes transmit the genetic information. A man has an X chromosome and a Y chromosome. A woman possesses two X chromosomes. For this reason, the father always determines the sex of a child. When the man transmits a Y chromosome to the child, it becomes a boy (XY) and when the man passes an X chromosome to the child, it becomes a girl (XX).
What is the genetic contribution of the child to
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What are different theories on the cognitive development of children? - Chapter 4
There are five different theories about the cognitive development of a child that will be discussed in this chapter.
- What is the focus in Piaget's theory?
- What are the criticisms on Piaget's theory?
- What do the information processing theories say about the cognitive development of children?
- What is the nature of the child according to the information processing theories?
- Which are the central development aspects in the information processing theories?
- What are the characteristics of core-knowledge theories?
- How is the nature of a child seen in core-knowledge theories?
- What are the central development aspects in core-knowledge theories?
- What do socio-cultural theories say about the cognitive development of children?
- How is the nature of the child seen in socio-cultural theories?
- Which are the central development aspects in socio-cultural theories?
- What do dynamic system theories say about the cognitive development of children?
What is the focus in Piaget's theory?
Piaget's theory remains the best known cognitive development theory. Piaget focuses on the way children think at different ages. He sees the child as a researcher: the child acquires knowledge through experiences. Children are motivated to learn without instructions or rewards from others. Piaget is therefore seen as a constructivist.
Piaget believed that genes and environment interact in order to produce cognitive development. Piaget saw the development as both a continuous process and a discontinuous process. The main aspects of continuity are: assimilation, accommodation, and balance. Assimilation is a process in which incoming information is processed on basis of the knowledge the child already has. Accommodation is a process in which new incoming information is processed on the basis of knowledge the child did not have before. Balance is a process in which a balance is created between the first two processes in order to understand new information. When a child does not understand something, it is in a phase of non-equilibrium.
Many of the important aspects of Piaget's theory are discontinuous aspects, which he named stages of cognitive development. The following stages are the central characteristics of Piaget's theory of urbanism: qualitative change, broad applicability, brief transitions and invariant sequence. Qualitative change means that the older a child becomes, the more the interpretations of certain behavior change. Broad applicability means that the thinking about certain subjects is influenced by the general way of thinking. Brief transitions explains the period of transition in the way of thinking. By invariant sequence is meant that each child runs all stages in the same order.
Piaget's theory consists of the following four stages: the sensorimotor phase, the preoperational phase, the concrete operational phase, and the formal operational phase.
1. What is the sensorimotor phase?
The sensorimotor phase occurs between the birth and the child's second year of life. The development of intelligence happens through sensory perceptions and motor actions. Important concepts in this phase are object permanence, the A-not-B-error
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How do children develop perception, action, and learning? - Chapter 5
How does perceptual development work?
There is a difference between perception and sensation. Sensation is the processing of basic information from the external world, through sensory receptors in the sensory organs and the brain. Perception is a process focusing on organizing and interpreting sensory information.
How does visual development take place in children?
In the past the visual capacity of babies was underestimated. Research shows that babies have a greater visual capacity than previously believed. Research was done through preferential looking technique and habituation. The preferential looking technique is a method for research of the baby's visual attention, whereby babies are presented with two patterns or two objects at the same time and eventually one pattern/ object is preferred. Habituation is a method of researching the sensory and perceptual development. The baby is repeatedly presented a stimulus until it gets used to it and shows a reduced response. Then a new stimulus is presented. If the reaction of the baby suddenly increases, one can conclude that the baby is capable of differentiating between old and new stimuli.
By using the preferential viewing technique, researchers are able to assess various visual aspects of babies. Visual acuity is the degree of visual discrimination. Normally babies prefer strong visual contrasts, such as black and white. The preference arises through the low contrast sensitivity of babies. Contrast sensitivity is the ability to distinguish between light and dark areas in visual patterns. Babies have low contrast sensitivity because the cones in the eyes are not well-developed yet. Cones are light-sensitive neurons, which are concentrated in the fovea of the eye. The fovea is the central area of the eye. The cones of babies capture only 2% of the light entering the fovea, while adults absorb 65% of the light that enters the fovea. The brains of babies respond to a color change to another category, but not to a color change within a certain category.
Babies scan the environment for moving objects, this is called visual scanning. The objects/ people have to move slowly, otherwise babies are quickly distracted. They cannot follow rapid movements because their eye movement is quite jerky.
Perceptual constancy is the perception of objects constant in size, shape, colors, etc., despite a change of the retinal image of the object. Babies are able to experience perceptual constancy.
Another crucial perceptual skill is object segregation. Object segregation is the perception of boundaries between the objects. Through the movement of different objects together, babies can see if there is only object or multiple objects. As babies grow older, they use general knowledge of the world to distinguish objects.
Optical expansion occurs when an object comes closer and appears to gets bigger and bigger. Babies are sensitive to this cue at
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How does language develop? - Chapter 6
How does language develop in children?
We use symbols to communicate with other people and to reflect or exchange our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge. Symbols are a tool when communicating with other people. Using language includes language comprehension and language production. Language comprehension is the understanding of what other people say, write or portrait (passive). Language production is speaking, writing or portraying to other people and is active. Language comprehension leads to language production.
What components does language have?
Generativity is a concept showing how important communication is. Generativity refers to the idea that through the use of an infinite set of words in our vocabulary, an infinite number of sentences can be formulated, and an infinite number of ideas can be expressed. Language consists of different terms. First, phonemes: the smallest pieces of sound that a language can produce. Then follows a phonological development, which reflects the acquisition of knowledge about sounds of language. Second, morphemes: the smallest pieces of language still having a meaning. Morphemes are composed of one or more phonemes. Here follows a semantic development, which is the knowledge of the meaning of certain expressions in a language. Thirdly, there is syntax: the rules of a language that specify how words of different categories (e.g. verbs, nouns) can be combined. This results in a syntactic development: the knowledge of the rules of a language. Ultimately, there is also a pragmatic development, which means how to learn to use a language.
What are the requirements for language?
Full use of language is only achieved by humans. Therefore, one of the requirements is the brain. A second requirement is to realize that a language can be learned it must be seen and heard.
Language is species-specific, because only people can speak a language. And language learning is species-universal, because in general humans are able to learn any language, except people with cognitive impairments. Dogs, parrots and mainly monkeys can also learn to understand our language to a certain extent. Monkeys can be taught to communicate using a lexigram board. The human brain builds a communication system with the complexity, structure and generativity of language.
For almost everyone, the left hemisphere is dominant in language. The left hemisphere controls and presents language-related stimuli. The critical period for learning a language is between the fifth year of life and puberty. The critical period for language is a period in which language develops
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How does conceptual development take place? - Chapter 7
Concepts are general ideas or terms that can be used to group objects, situations, qualities, or abstractions, that let them become equal in a certain way.
How do children learn to understand who and what?
How do children learn to divide objects into categories?
Children use categorical hierarchy to distinguish between categories. The categories are classified into set-subset relation, such as animal-dog-poodle. Small children especially use perceptual categorization: grouping objects that are similar. It can already be seen in children from 3 to 4 months old. As children grow older, they also understand hierarchical and causal relationships between categories. The categorical hierarchies’ children are forming often contain three levels: the superordinate level (for example a plant), the subordinate level (for example an oak tree), and the basic level (for example, a tree). Children mainly learn the basic level first, after the parents help them to gain understanding of the higher levels. In an older age, children establish causal relationships between objects through explanations or the idea of cause and consequences between objects. This helps the child understand the categories and form more categories.
How do children learn to understand others and themselves?
Naive psychology is about a basic understanding of ourselves and others. Children are born with an implicit self-awareness that they are an individual separate from others. By the age of 4 months, children have developed a basic understanding of which objects can be grasped for and which cannot (for example, objects that are too far away). Between 18 and 24 months, children have developed a more explicit self-awareness and they recognize dirt on their face in the mirror and do their best to look good to others.
Children imitate other people and form emotional bonds with them, learning about how people and how they differ from each other. Babies as young as a few months old already seem to understand that behavior has a purpose. Children eventually learn to understand the intentions of others by figuring out what kinds of objects can have intentions. When objects 'respond' appropriately, a baby is more likely to see the object as something with intention, even if it is a blob moving based on instructions from an investigator. Before the first year of life, children have already learned a lot about how people behave and how their behavior is related to their intentions and goals.
Before age 1, children also appear to be able to notice differences between individuals. For example, children between 10 and 12 months old appear to prefer food and toys that are offered by someone who speaks their mother tongue.
After the first year of life, the naive psychology of children develops further. Late in the first and early second year of life, babies learn to
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What is intelligence and how does it develop? - Chapter 8
What is intelligence?
The concept of intelligence is difficult to describe. One way, is to describe intelligence through three levels of analysis:
- Some see intelligence as one factor called general intelligence, g. General intelligence are cognitive processes influencing the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks.
- There are also good arguments for intelligence to consist of two types of intelligence, fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve new problems at a certain moment, for example by drawing conclusions and understanding relationships between concepts that have never been encountered before. Fluent intelligence usually peaks in early adulthood and then slowly decreases. Crystallized intelligence is the actual knowledge about the world. Crystallized intelligence starts early in life and continues to multiply. Thurstone divides intelligence in a complex way into seven skills. These are the so-called seven primary mental abilities crucial for intelligence: word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial visualization, numbering, rote memory and perceptual speed. The division of intelligence into seven abilities equals the distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence. Some scores on certain abilities correlate more with each other than with scores of other abilities.
- The third view sees many different processes involved in intelligence. This leads to more specification of processes in intellectual behavior than the other two levels.
The perspectives can be brought together. According to Carroll, there is a model for intelligence: the three-stratum theory of intelligence. This model contains general intelligence in the top layer of the hierarchy, then several moderately general abilities in the middle layer, and at the bottom layer numerous specific processes. In short: all three levels are necessary to understand and measure intelligence.
How can intelligence be measured?
Measuring intelligence is difficult because it is an invisible capacity. Measuring observable behavior is the only way to measure intelligence. For different ages, there are several tests to measure intelligence. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC) is used for children from six years and older. The design that underlies the WISC-V is consistent with Carroll's three-layer theory.
What is the intelligence quotient?
In most intelligence tests, a general quantitative measuring instrument is used to measure the intelligence of a child. Like this it is comparable with other children of the same age. It is called the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Many characteristics, including intelligence, are normally distributed. This normal distribution is a pattern of
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What are the theories on social development in children? - Chapter 9
What do psychoanalytic theories claim about the social development of children?
Psychoanalytic theories have had the greatest impact on western cultures. These theories have had a major influence on the way of thinking about personality and social developments. This is mainly because og Sigmund Freud. Erik Erikson later accounted on the ideas of Sigmund Freud. Both theories are based on biological ripening. According to Freud, the behavior is motivated by the need to satisfy basic drifts. The resulting instincts and motives usually arise unconsciously. According to Erikson, development is motivated by crises in the development related to age and biological maturation. The individual must successfully complete all crises in order to achieve healthy development. The theories of Freud and Erikson are stage theories.
How does Freud perceive social development?
Freud is the founder of the psychoanalytic theory. His theory about the development of children is also called the theory of psychosexual development. He thought that even very young children have a sexual nature that motivates their behavior and influences their relationships with other people. Children go through five phases of universal developments. According to Freud, psychic energy focuses on different erogenous zones. Psychic energy consists of the biological urges that feed the behavior, the thoughts and the feelings. The erogenous zones are areas of the body that are erotically sensitive, such as the mouth, the anus, and the genitals. According to Freud, every child encounters conflict with his erogenous zones. He states that their success or failure of this conflict, influences the development in their lives.
The psychic energy consists of the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the first and the most primitive of the three personality structures. Id is unconscious and is driven by the gratification principle, the goal of finding maximum satisfaction as quickly as possible. During the first year of life, the baby is in the first phase of psychosexual development, the oral stage, in which the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure comes from oral activities. Later in the first year of life develops the second personality structure, the ego. Ego is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of the personality. During the second year of life, the child gains more control over body processes such as urination and at that point the child enters the second phase: the anal stage, in which the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure comes from defecation. Third phase is the phallic stage, which is present from the age of 3 to 6 years. In the phallic stage sexual pleasure is focused on the genitals. This is how the superego develops, the
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How does emotion development in children take place? - Chapter 10
How do emotions develop in children?
Emotions are often equated with feelings. Development ideologists have a more complex approach to look at emotions. They see emotions as consisting of multiple components: neural responses, the physiological factors (heartbeat, breaths, hormone levels), subjective feelings, emotional expression and the desire to take action (flee, approach, or change people or things in the environment). However, there is a lot of discussion about whether emotions are innate or not.
What are theories regarding the nature and development of emotions?
The discrete emotions theory states that emotions are innate and that it is possible to distinguished between them from birth. Also, it states that each emotion is accompanied by a specific set of physical reactions and facial expressions. This is derived from the ideas of Darwin. According to his theory, emotional reactions are mainly automatic and not based on cognition. Babies have a set of recognizable emotions without being able to actively learn about these emotions. Also, certain expressions of emotions around the world are the same. The functionalist perspective, however, states that emotions depend on the environment, and the function of emotions is to take actions to achieve a certain goal. Emotions can not be distinguished discrete of each other here and are partly based on the social environment. The two approaches agree that cognition and experiences influence emotional development.
When do emotions develop?
Researchers agree that there are several universal basic emotions in all human cultures. These basic emotions have important survival and communication functions. They can be seen very early in life, which supports discrete emotion theory.
In the first month, a baby sometimes smiles during sleep. These early smiles are reflexive and are not generated by social interaction. From the third to the eighth week, a baby smiles due to external stimuli. When they are about 6-7 weeks they start laughing at others, this is called social smiles. The seventh month, babies laugh at familiar people. This is intended to strengthen the bond. At the end of the first year babies show that they enjoy unexpected things, like mommy with a crazy hat on.
From the fourth month, babies seem to be aware of unknown objects and events. When they are 6-7 months old, the first signs of fear start to occur. Mainly fear of strangers. This normally disappears around the second year of life. In the eighth to the thirteenth month babies show fear when they are separated from the primary caregivers. This is called separation anxiety. This fear decreases as they age.
Anger is the reaction of a child
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What do attachment theories say about development? - Chapter 11
Children develop certain forms of attachment. Attachment is an emotional bond with a specific person, a bond that remains constant over time. Attachment is often discussed as the relationship between a child and his/her caregiver, but attachment can also occur in adulthood.
Which attachment styles do we distinguish?
What is the attachment theory?
The attachment theory was proposed by Bowlby. This theory states that children have a biological predisposition to attach themselves to the caregivers, in order to increase the chance of their own survival. Later, Ainsworth expanded and tested Bowlby's ideas. According to Freud, children's development is shaped by their early relationship with their mothers. Bowlby agreed on this, but changed the idea of Freud's "needy, dependent infant" into a "competence - motivated child" that uses his/her caregiver as a secure base. This secure base is based on the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver can provide a child with a sense of security and makes it possible for the child to explore the environment.
The attachment process has an innate basis, but its development and quality depend on the experiences of the child with their caregivers. According to Bowlby, the development of attachment takes place in four phases:
- Pre-attachment takes place from birth to the age of 6 weeks. Here babies produce innate signals, such as crying. The baby is reassured by the comforting action of the caregiver.
- Attachment-in-the-making takes place between the age of 6 weeks and 6-8 months. Babies react to familiar people, for example by smiling, laughing out loud, or babbling. They calm down more quickly and build up a sense of trust in the caregivers.
- Clear-cut attachment takes place between the ages of 6-8 months and 1.5 years. In this phase babies actively seek contact with the caregiver. Babies greet the mother when she appears, but may experience stress when she leaves: separation anxiety or distress.
- Reciprocal relationships take place from the age of 1.5/ 2 years on. Children develop cognitive and language abilities to understand the feelings, goals and motives of their parents. This creates a mutual relationship in which the child plays an active role. In this phase, the separation anxiety becomes less.
The outcome of these phases is an emotional bond between child and caregiver(s). The child develops an internal working model of attachment. This is the mental representation the child has of himself, of the attachment figure and of relationships in general. This mental representation has developed through experiences with the caregiver(s). The internal working model guides the interactions of the child with other people, even when the child grows older.
How is security of attachment measured?
Ainsworth did research in both the USA and Uganda, where she studied the mother-child relationship during infants' explorations and
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What is the influence of family on the development of children? - Chapter 12
What family structures do we distinguish?
The adult family members who have the greatest effects on the development of a child are the ones with whom they live together. They are in regular contact, they raise the children and support them financially. The term family structure refers to the number of people living in a household and the relationships between them.
What kind of general family structure changes have occurred in the US?
More and more children are living with one parent or with unmarried parents. In 2014, 46% of children lived with parents in their first marriage, compared to 73% in 1960. This is accompanied with a growth in the number of children living with a single parent. The family structure has major implications for the income. Almost half of the children living with a single parent live below the poverty line, compared to 14% of the children with two married parents. In addition, single parents often have less time for their child.
Also, the age at which women have their first child has increased. There are fewer teenage pregnancies. Getting children at a later age has clear advantages. Parents generally have more financial resources and are less likely to have a divorce within ten years. Often they are also more positive in their upbringing.
More and more children live with their grandparents. This has negative effects, because a long time has passed since they raised their own children. Families are also getting smaller due to the fact that women more often have work ambitions and because of improved and more accesable birth control. Family structures are also more and more fluid, partly because of divorce.
The number of teenage mothers has decreased in the recent years. Getting a child as an adolescent is associated with negative outcomes for both the mother and the child. It has consequences for the possibilities of the mother in terms of education, career and relationships with peers. They often have weak skills in terms of parenting. Children more often show disorganized attachment and problems such as weak impulse control and delays in cognitive development, and also a higher chance of delinquent behavior and early sexual activity. Young mothers who have knowledge about the development of a child and their upbringing raise children with fewer problems. The presence of the father can be beneficial for both the child and the mother.
What is the influence of having parents with the same sex on the development of a child?
The number of gay and lesbian parents has increased significantly in recent years. Children with parents of the same gender do not differ from children with parents of different genders in terms of adaptation, personality,
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What is the influence of peers on the development of a child? - Chapter 13
Peers are people of about the same age and status who are not relatives.
What is the importance of play?
Play refers to voluntary activities that children do without any other motivation than for their own pleasure. Research has shown that play contributes to the social, emotional, cognitive and physical development of children. Children engage in increasingly complex forms of play as they get older. Play is also used as a basis for interventions to help young children deal with mental problems or cope with trauma.
What different types of play do we distinguish?
There are different types of play. Non-social types of play include:
- Unoccupied play: children look at objects in their environment, but their attention is not held by anything.
- Onlooker play: kids watch other kids play.
- Solitary play: children play on their own and do not pay attention to the goodbye of others around them.
Social forms of play are:
- Parallel play: children play next to but not together with other children.
- Associative play: children play together with other children and do the same activity.
- Co-operative play: children play together with others in an organized way in which each child has its own role.
Why and how do friendships develop?
Relationships with peers contribute to the development of a child. Piaget stated that children are more open and spontaneous in expressing certain ideas and beliefs towards peers than towards their parents or other adults. Vygotsky stated that children learn new skills and develop their cognitive abilities through relationships with peers. A friend is a person with whom an individual has an intimate, mutual, positive relationship.
How do children choose friends?
Children usually become friends with peers who are pleasant to deal with and who behave pro-socially towards others. Another determining factor is equality of interests and behavior. For young children, proximity is an important factor, this becomes less important with age. Most adolescents report that school is the most common setting in which they spend time with their close friends. Another important factor is gender, girls are mostly friends with girls and boys with boys. In addition, there is also a tendency for children to be friends with others from their own racial or ethnic group, although this influences to a lesser extent.
Cultural differences influence how children approach their peers to form relationships. In addition, cultural differences influence the roles of peers and
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How does moral development take place? - Chapter 14
How does moral judgment develop in children?
The morality of a certain action is not always obvious. The reasoning behind certain behavior is crucial for determining whether that behavior is moral or immoral.
What is the idea behind Piaget's theory on moral development in children?
Piaget's theory on moral judgment refers to the fact that interaction with peers has a higher contribution to the moral reasoning of children than the interaction with adults. According to Piaget, there are two phases children go through in the development of moral reasoning, with a transitional period between these two phases:
Heteronomous morality: it takes place when a child is younger than seven years of age. The child is taught what is right and wrong on the basis of the consequences instead of motives or intentions. In this period, children think that rules are unchanging. Parental control is one-sided and compelling, so children have indisputable respect for the rules of adults. In addition, cognitive immaturity leads to the believe that rules are 'real' things, rather than a product of the human mind.
Transitional period: occurs when a child is between seven and ten years old. The child takes a more active role in reasoning about what is right or wrong. Interactions with peers are helpful for this transition.
Autonomous morality: this phase begins when the child is between eleven and twelve years old. The child no longer is blind adopting the rules. The child will consider motives and intentions when assessing behavior.
This vision has received support from empirical research. However, there has also been criticism. For example, there is little evidence that interactions with peers stimulate moral development. Here, the quality of interactions seems to be important. In addition, Piaget underestimated the ability of children to be aware of intentionality. Very young children can already distinguish between an adult who tries to help (but fails) and an adult who does not want to help.
What does Kohlberg's theory say about moral development in children?
Kohlberg's theory of moral judgment states that the development of moral reasoning takes place in a specific series of stages which are discontinuous and hierarchical. Each level is divided into two stage of moral judgment. Only very few people reach the sixth phase of post-conventional moral reasoning. People differ in how many phases they ultimately complete successfully. Here is the complete model:
Level 1: Preconventional Level
This phase is self-centered. The focus is on getting rewards and avoiding punishment.
Phase 1: Punishment and obedience orientation. Obeying authorities and avoiding punishment. The child is not aware of the interests of others.
Phase 2: Instrumental and exchange orientation.
How does gender development take place? - Chapter 15
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex is the difference between genetic female (XX) and genetic male (XY). Gender is the social assignment or self-categorization as a woman or man (or neither). Gender-typed refers to behavior that is expected for a person's gender. Cross-gender typed refers to behavior that is expected for the different gender than the person has. Gender typing refers to the process of gender socialization.
What is the gender binary?
The binary gender is the prevailing idea that there are only two categories of genders. However, research has shown that there is no such thing as the 'female brain' or 'male brain'. The idea of a difference between 'female hormones' and 'male hormones' is also incorrect, since all sex hormones are present in both men and women. Moreover, according to research, there is no such thing as 'male behavior' and 'female behavior'. Another criticism of binary gender identity is that transgender and non-binary identities exist all over the world, regardless of culture. Finally, the social world is organized and structured according to the gender binary.
How can research compare boys and girls?
If gender groups are compared in terms of behavior, it is often the case the genders differ only slightly from each other and there is a lot of overlap and similarities. In addition, there is a lot of variation within the groups, not all members of the same gender are the same. It is important to consider both the magnitude of the differences between the averages of the groups and the amount of overlap in their distributions. This statistical index is called an effect size. In various studies, contradictory results are found. To create an overall pattern, scientists use a statistical technique called meta-analysis to summarize the average effect size and statistical significance.
What are the theoretical approaches regarding gender development?
What do biological theories say about gender development?
There are different theories that focus on biological influences on gender.
According to the evolutionary psychological theory, gender differences are created by the reproductive benefits and helped humans survive during the course of evolution. Boys often play physical games. This would have reproductive benefits for later in finding friends, hunting and competitions between men. Girls like to maintain social relationships and care for other people. The reproductive benefits for later would be taking care of a
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What conclusions can we draw from the chapters of this book? - Chapter 16
This chapter contains an integrative framework of the seven themes that have emerged throughout the book.
- What can we conclude about the influence of nature and nurture?
- What can we conclude about the role that children play in their own development?
- What can we conclude about the (dis)continuity of development?
- What conclusions can we draw about the mechanisms of developmental changes?
- What conclusions can we draw about the influence of the socio-cultural context on development?
- What conclusions can we draw about the influence of individual differences?
- What conclusions can we draw about the importance of developmental research?
What can we conclude about the influence of nature and nurture?
If prenatal development proceeds normally, it seems as if it is simply the development of innate potential in which the environment is not important. However, if things go wrong, it is obvious that nature and nurture interact. Consider teratogens, harmful substances the child can get in contact to in the womb. The extent to which negative effects occur depends on genes and other environmental factors such as timing.
A certain nature also evokes a certain nurture. For example, babies that are cute motivate people in the environment to play and interact with them. Timing is also important, normal development of certain skills is only possible when a child is exposed to relevant experiences during a specific period. If this does not happen, developmental retardation can arise in terms of perception, language, intelligence, emotions and social behavior.
Many genetically influenced characteristics only emerge during later childhood, adolescence or adulthood. Think of the physical changes that occur during puberty or the development of nearsightedness in later childhood or early adolescence. Schizophrenia also usually manifests itself later. In all these characteristics, an interaction between nature and nurture is also important.
All in all, it seems like everything affects each other. Genes, traits and behavioral tendencies interact with the nurture that children receive in different ways. In this way self-image, intellect, actions and other qualities arise.
What can we conclude about the role that children play in their own development?
Even before birth, children learn to distinguish between different stimuli and when they are born they are already able to selectively focus on certain interesting objects. Their actions also elicit reactions from other people, which further shapes their development. This ability to interact with the environment is greatly enhanced during the first year of life. The children learn to follow moving objects with their eyes, and they learn how to crawl which helps to actively explore the environment. As the development continues, children learn to talk
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Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- What is the book about?
- Summaries per chapter
- ExamTests per chapter
- Related summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
ExamTests per chapter with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Why do we study the development of children? - ExamTest 1
Questions
Question 1
Which statement is true?
- It is not possible to suppose that children tell the truth in court.
- Specifically, young children are susceptible for suggestive questioning, when questions are repeated again and again.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 2
Which statement is true? Children can experience negative effects when they...
- Have been in an unstable environment longer than 1 month after birth.
- Have been in an unstable environment longer than 3 months after birth.
- Have been in an unstable environment longer than 6 months after birth.
- Have been in an unstable environment longer than 1 year after birth.
Question 3
Which general conclusion can be drawn about continuous/discontinuous development, despite some disagreement over the topic?
- Development is mainly a continuous process.
- Development is mainly a discontinuous process, as proved in the stage theories.
- It depends on how you look at it and how often you look.
- Development is sometimes a continuous and sometimes a discontinuous process.
Question 4
Which research design has the advantage of being able to observe the change of individuals over time and the disadvantage that repeated testing reduces external validity?
- Longitudinal research
- Observational research
- Cross-sectional research
- Correlational Research
Question 5
The "turtle shell" technique is an example of a successful intervention that helps preschoolers cope with ...
- The sense of isolation.
- Feelings of embarrassment.
- Bullying from peers.
- Their own anger.
Question 6
What is meta-analysis?
- The reproduction of a past study in order to confrim or debunk the results.
- A philosophical exploration of an experiment or case study.
- A method for combining and analyzing the results from several independent studies.
- A list of all published articles related to a specific area of research.
Question 7
Studies have shown that children's testimony is usually accurate when which of the following conditions are met?
- The interviewer does not ask leading questions.
- One of the child's parents is present.
- The child and the interviewer are alone when the testimony is given.
- The child is repeatedly prompted during the interview.
Question 8
According to developmentalists, which of the following statements is true?
- Development is most heavily influenced by nature.
- Development is most heavily influenced by nurture.
- Development is influenced by thejoint working of nature and nurture.
- Nature and nurture are essentially the same.
Question 9
The concept of the "active child" refers to ...
- Observations of children at play.
- Whether an infant sleeps through the night.
- The importance of physical activity to child development.
- How children contribute to their
How does prenatal development work? - ExamTest 2
Questions
Question 1
When does a fertilized egg be called 'fetus'?
- Directly after conception.
- After three weeks.
- After nine weeks.
- After three months.
Question 2
What is cell differentiation?
- The process that takes place 12 hours after fertilization.
- The process whereby cells specialize in structure and function.
- The process of movement of newly formed cells away from their original location.
- The process whereby redundant cells are destroyed.
Question 3
Which of the following is no consequence of being small for gestational age?
- Learning problems.
- Social problems.
- Increased risk of infections.
- Insufficient growth.
Question 4
In what phase of development do teratogens cause the most severe damage?
- Directly after conception.
- In the fetal phase of prenatal development.
- In the embryonic phase of prenatal development.
- In post-natal development.
Question 5
Which of the following statements about sensitive periods in prenatal development is correct?
- The sensitive periods of the first major organ systems are simultaneous.
- Teratogens have the most severe effect on prenatal development just prior to the development of an organ system.
- The sensitive period of an organ is the period in which the basic structures of this organ are formed.
- The sensitive period of limb development occurs several weeks before limb development begins.
Question 6
The single cell that forms when two gametes merge during conception is called a ...
- Zygote.
- Ova.
- Sperm.
- Embryo.
Question 7
Which process of prenatal development is critical to the specialization of cells?
- Cell division.
- Synaptogenesis.
- Cell differentiation.
- Apoptosis.
Question 8
Harry and Ron are genetically identical twins and are referred to as ... . Althea (a genetic female) and Stephen (a genetic male) are also twins but are clearly ... twins.
- Monozygotic; identical.
- Dizygotic; fraternal.
- Dizygotic; monozygotic.
- Monozygotic; dizygotic.
Question 9
Which of the following systems protects the developing embryo from dangerous toxins?
- Amniotic sac.
- Placenta.
- Umbilical cord.
- Neural tube.
Question 10
The disproportionaly large head of a 5-month-old fetus is a typical result of the normal process of ...
- Cephalocaudal development.
- Proximal-distal development.
- Lateral development.
- Bottom-up development.
Question 11
Which of the following sense is the least active while the fetus is in the womb?
- Hearing.
- Smell.
- Taste.
- Sight.
Question 12
Logan's dad is thrilled as Logan laughs each time he shows him a new toy: a monkey that squeaks when he pushes on its belly. After repeated exposure to the squeaking monkey, Logan becomes bored and no longer laughs. This process is known as ...
- Habituation.
- Dishabituation.
- Classical conditioning.
- Operant conditioning.
Question 13
The DeCasper and Spence study, in which pregnant
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How do nature and nurture play a role in development? - ExamTest 3
Questions
Question 1
Which of the following is true?
- Adoption studies examine whether siblings who grew up apart, are more different than siblings who were raised together.
- Adoptive twin studies compare identical twins who grew up together versus identical twins who were raised apart.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 2
Which statement about heritability is true?
- Heritability gives information about certain populations.
- Heritability gives information about individuals.
- High heritability means that a certain trait is unchangeable.
- Heritability gives information about differences between certain groups.
Question 3
- More boys than girls are born.
- Boys are more likely to be delivered by C-section than girls.
- The Y chromosome fertilizes an egg more aften than the X chromosome.
Which statement(s) is / are correct?
- Statement I is correct, statements II and III are incorrect.
- Proposition I and II are correct, Proposition III is incorrect.
- All statements are correct.
- All statements are incorrect.
Question 4
What is the genotype?
- The inherited genetic material of an individual.
- The observable expression of the genes, namely the bodily characteristics and behavior.
- The all-encompassing aspect of an individual and his / her surrounding aspects.
- The heritable changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence.
Question 5
Father has a dominant brown gene and a recessive green gene. Mother has a dominant green gene and a recessive green gene. What are the chances of their child having green eyes?
- 25%.
- 50%.
- 75%.
- 100%.
Question 6
What do we mean by passive gene-environment interactions?
- The child's environment is changed by the genes.
- A child evokes reactions from the environment through which certain genes are expressed.
- The child's environment matches his / her genes, because the child's genes make sure he / she chooses a particular environment.
- A child's genes are changed by the environment.
Question 7
Marcus has red hair, green eyes, and freckles. He is very active but shy. These characteristics are a reflecten of Marcus's ...
- Dominant genes.
- Recessive genes.
- Genotype.
- Phenotype.
Question 8
An individual's genetic sex is determined by ...
- Whether the mother has a Y chromosome.
- The random interaction of the sex chromosomes of the mother and father.
- The sex chromosomes contributed by the mother.
- The sex chromosomes contributed by the father.
Question 9
The continual switching on or off of specific genes at specific times throughout development is hte result of a chain of genetic events primarily controlled by ...
- Alleles.
- Regulator genes.
- Glial cells.
- Synaptogenesis.
Question 10
Traits such as
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What are different theories on the cognitive development of children? - ExamTest 4
Questions
Question 1
Which concept of Piaget is defined by the following: The process by which people process incoming information according to concepts they already understand.
- Modification.
- Equilibration.
- Assimilation.
- Accommodation.
Question 2
Which of the following is the right order of Piaget's stages?
- Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.
- Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, formal operational stage, concrete operational stage.
- Preoperational stage, sensorimotor stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.
- Preoperational stage, sensorimotor stage, formal operational stage, concrete operational stage.
Question 3
Which of the following is true?
- Core-knowledge theorist propose that children are born with general knowledge and that they expand this knowledge gradually. Piaget proposes that children are born with both general knowledge and specialized learning mechanisms to acquire additional information.
- Core-knowledge theorist see the child as scientist, Piaget sees the child as a well-adapted product of evolution.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 4
What are the three hallmarks of Piaget's Constructivism?
- The child is a scientist, learning happens through the environment, and extrinsic motivation.
- The child is a 'blank slate', learning is done by the environment, and intrinsic motivation.
- The child is a scientist, learning is done independently, and has extrinsic motivation.
- The child is a scientist, learning is done independently, and has intrinsic motivation.
Question 5
Which theory focuses most on the innate learning skills of a child?
- Information processing theory.
- Piaget's Theory.
- Dynamic systems theory.
- Core knowledge theory.
Question 6
According to Piaget, development is both continuous and discontinuous. Which of the following aspects of Piagetian theory would be considered a source of discontinuity?
- Assimilation.
- Accommodation.
- Equilibration.
- Invariant stages.
Question 7
A noted accomplishment during Piaget's sensorimotor stage is ...
- Symbolic representation.
- Object permanence.
- Conservation.
- Egocentrism.
Question 8
According to information-processing theories, the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information is referred to as ...
- Memory.
- Rehearsal.
- Metacognition.
- Retrieval.
Question 9
Information-processing theories note several limits on children's thinking. Which of the following is not one of these limits?
- Memory capacity.
- Implementation of task analysis.
- Speed of processing information.
- Ability to utilize problem-solving strategies.
Question 10
Overlapping waves theory explains children's ability to ...
- Selectively attend to the most relevant aspect of a problem.
- Identify the obstacles in ahcieving a goal.
- Effectively process mental operations.
- Discover new strategies that lead to more efficient problem solving.
Question 11
According to core-knowledge theorists, children possess naïve theories in what three major domains?
- Mathematics, psychology, and arts.
- Biology, sociology, and psychology.
How do children develop perception, action, and learning? - ExamTest 5
Questions
Question 1
Which concept is defined in the following? The processing of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain.
- Perception.
- Observation.
- Sensation.
- Information processing.
Question 2
Fill in: Infants have high/poor contrast sensitivity, because the cones/rods in their retinas are immature.
- High, cones.
- High, rods.
- Poor, cones.
- Poor, rods.
Question 3
Which of the following is no reflex of a newborn?
- Grasping.
- Sucking.
- Swallowing.
- Splashing.
Question 4
Mutual understanding is also called ...
- Theory of Mind.
- Intermodal perception.
- Intersubjectivity.
- Active learning.
Question 5
A baby touches a block in a dark room. Then he enters a lit room where he sees a ball and a block. He chooses the square block. The familiarity that is shown in this example is due to ...
- Active learning.
- Intermodal perception.
- Object constancy.
- Perception constancy.
Question 6
A teddy bear makes a sound when you press it. A child realizes this and starts to press on the bear more often. How do we call this effect?
- Classical conditioning.
- Imitation.
- Instrumental conditioning.
- Active learning.
Question 7
How do babies learn about gravity?
- When they are a few months old, they only have a basic understanding of gravity. This understanding develops further during the first year of life.
- A basic understanding of gravity is innate.
- Babies learn about gravity by trial-and-error during the first year of life.
- Only after the first year of life do children learn to understand gravity.
Question 8
A young baby does not reach for an object that has just seen hidden. Piaget's interpretation of this is:
- The baby is no longer interested in the object.
- The baby is unaware of the object's existence.
- The baby is not yet able to reach for the object.
- The baby is not yet able to get the object out.
Question 9
A researcher presents an infant with two objects. To determine whether the infant is able to discriminate between the objects and favors one over the other, the researcher measures the amount of time the infant spends looking at each object. Which experimental technique is this researcher using?
- Contrast sensitivity technique.
- Visuel acuity method.
- Preferential-looking method.
- Active learning method.
Question 10
One-month-old Bella is hown a small cube that is close to her. Next she is shown a larger cube that is farther away from her. Because the two cubes are at different distances from Bella, they appear to be the same size. Bella's actions indicate that she recongizes that the second cube is larger, signifying that she has ...
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How does language develop? - ExamTest 6
Questions
Question 1
Which concept is defined by the following? The smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more units.
- Semantics.
- Phonemes.
- Morphemes.
- Syntax.
Question 2
What is the second step in learning language?
- The preparation for the production of speech by means of repetitive consonant-vowel sequences.
- The perception of speech, by means of rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, etc.
- The first words.
- Categorical perception.
Question 3
A child says: "I getted that from my grandmother". 'Getted' consists of three ...
- Phonemes.
- Morphemes.
- Syntaxes.
- Modularities.
Question 4
What's the Importance of Infant Directed Talk?
- It is critical to the child's language development.
- It is critical to the child's attachment.
- It is not necessary, but it increases the chance of secure attachment.
- It is not necessary, but it is helpful for the language development of the child.
Question 5
What does someone specialized in the interactionist perspective on language development find interesting?
- The ability to use the social environment of what the other says.
- The components of language and grammar.
- The (innate) mechanisms for language development.
- The importance of non-verbal communication for language development.
Question 6
Language ... refers to the understanding of what others say; language ... refers to the process of speaking.
- Comprehension; production.
- Development; generativity.
- Pragmatics; semantics.
- Perception; distribution.
Question 7
Between 6 and 12 months of age, infants typiclaly experience a linguistic perceptual naarowing. What effect does this change have on their language development?
- They become increasingly more sensitive to non-native speech sounds.
- They focus more on the words they hear most frequently.
- They become increasingly less sensitive to non-native speech sounds.
- Their ability to distinguish between speech and other environmental sounds diminishes.
Question 8
Emily is given two pictures: one shows a flower, a word she already knows, and the other shows a unicorn, which is new to her. When asked to point to the "unicorn", Emily points to the unknown image, which is of unicorn. Which assumption is Emily making in order to learn this new word?
- Social contexts.
- Intentionality.
- Mutual exclusivity.
- Grammatical categorization.
Question 9
Which of the following statements is not true of infant-directed speech (IDS)?
- The exaggerated tone and pitch of IDS is often accompanied by exaggerated facial expressions.
- Infants tend to prefer infant-drected speech to adult-directed speech.
- Evidence suggests that IDS is a universal practice across all cultures.
- Infant-directed signing has similar attributes to infant-directed speech but in the visual modality.
Question 10
The tendency of specific sounds to frequently recur in a language is known as ...
How does conceptual development take place? - ExamTest 7
Questions
Question 1
Which of the following does not belong to the three categories that children use to distinguish by categoral hierarchy?
- Not-living things.
- Animals.
- Humans.
- Living things.
Question 2
Which of the following is true?
- An important component of false belief problems is the understanding of the relation between desires and actions.
- Theory of mind is the understanding of how the mind works and how this influences behavior.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 3
Which of the following concepts is not developed by children to understand the world?
- Space.
- Causality.
- Numbers.
- Pace.
Question 4
Which concepts are in the order 'subordinate', 'basic', and 'superordinate'?
- Car, jeep, means of transport.
- Means of transport, car, jeep.
- Jeep, car, means of transport.
- Means of transport, jeep, car.
Question 5
What does essentialism mean?
- The understanding that every living being has something other than what makes them what they are.
- The theory that emphasizes innate mechanisms in conceptual development.
- The theory that emphasizes the essential components of conceptual development.
- The idea that conceptual development is different and takes place differently for each individual.
Question 6
Ormrod believed that in misconceptions conceptual change is prevented by ...
- The occurrence of the misattrubution effect.
- The occurrence of the confirmation bias.
- The permanent consolidation of this information in the long-term memory.
- The automation of association of this information.
Question 7
Steve Jobs holds a meeting where everyone has to contribute as many ideas as possible without looking at whether those ideas are feasible. This is an example of ...
- Groupthink.
- Uninhibited thinking.
- Convergent thinking.
- Divergent thinking.
Question 8
The belief that infants are born with some sense of fundamental concepts, such as time, space, and number, is a basic component of ... .
- Naïve psychology.
- Theory of mind.
- Nativism.
- Empiricism.
Question 9
In Krascum and Andrew's experiments, young children were better able to classify wugs and gillies after being told sotries explaining each creature's unique appearance. Their findings support the imnportance of ... .
- Naïve psychology.
- Causal relationships.
- Magical thinking.
- False beliefs.
Question 10
The proposed existence of a theory of mind model, which is the brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings, is most closely associated with advocates of which position?
- Empiricism.
- Existentialism.
- Essentialism.
- Nativism.
Question 11
What is the significance of the false-belief problem?
- It illustrates that very young children do not understand
What is intelligence and how does it develop? - ExamTest 8
Questions
Question 1
Which of the following statements is true?
- Crystallized intelligence is the ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems.
- Fluid intelligence is the factual knowledge about the world.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 2
Which intelligence test is used for children of 6 years and older?
- The Stanford-Binet intelligence test.
- Revisie Amsterdamse Kinder-Intelligentie-Test (Rakit).
- The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
- Raven's Progressive Matrices.
Question 3
Which of the following is true about IQ?
- IQ scores are strong predictors of academic, economic and occupational achievements.
- Correlations between individual alleles of genes and IQ are very small, genetic influences on intelligence reflect small contributions from each of a very large number of genes and interactions among them.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 4
At the age of three, children learn to count. What is NOT a principle of counting?
- One-on-one counting.
- Cardinality.
- Order irrelevance.
- Perceptual counting.
Question 5
The correlation between the IQ of an adopted child and its biological parent ...
- Decreases over time due to interaction of the genotype with the environment.
- Increases over time due to interaction of the genotype with the environment.
- Disappears when the child leaves the biological parent.
- Is 100%.
Question 6
What is the Flynn Effect?
- It states that intelligence scores have increased at the top of the scale in the last 70 years.
- It states that intelligence scores have declined at the top of the scale in the last 70 years.
- It states that intelligence scores have increased at the bottom of the scale in the last 70 years.
- It states that intelligence scores have declined at the bottom of the scale in the last 70 years.
Question 7
Early reading skills help for the development of ...
- Phonological awareness, which leads to an increase in later reading skills.
- Grammatical awareness, which leads to an increase in later reading skills.
- Phonological awareness, which leads to an increase in later reading and writing skills.
- Grammatical awareness, which leads to an increase in later reading and writing skills.
Question 8
What do mnemonic strategies result?
- The storage of information in the long-term memory is enhanced.
- The storage of information from working memory in long-term memory is facilitated.
- The storage of the working memory is increased.
- The information in the long-term memory can be retrieved more easily.
Question 9
The memory of last summer's vacation is an example of ...
What are the theories on social development in children? - ExamTest 9
Questions
Question 1
What is the right order of Freud's developmental stages?
- Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency period, genital stage.
- Anal stage, oral stage, phallic stage, latency period, genital stage.
- Oral stage, anal stage, latency period, phallic stage, genital stage.
- Oral stage, anal stage, genital stage, latency period, phallic stage.
Question 2
During which developmental stage does the Oedipus complex occur?
- Anal stage.
- Phallic stage.
- Latency period.
- Genital stage.
Question 3
Who is the founder of behaviorism?
- Albert.
- Erikson.
- Skinner.
- Watson.
Question 4
John takes a biscuit from the biscuit tin before eating, while his parents told him he wasn't allowed to. John feels guilty after eating the cookie. According to Freud ... is responsible for this.
- The ego.
- The superego.
- The id.
- The libido.
Question 5
A 23 month old toddler is sleeping badly. His mother takes him to a therapist. Which theory is best for the therapist to apply?
- The bio-ecological model.
- The psychoanalysis.
- Eriksson's theory of psycho-social development.
- The social learning theory.
Question 6
What are the similarities of the different learning theories?
- The emphasis on continuous development, and emphasis on nurture.
- The emphasis on continuous development, and the emphasis on nature.
- The emphasis on the active child.
- The emphasis on nature and nurture.
Question 7
China's one-child policy exemplified the link between which two systems of Bronfenbrenner's ecological model?
- Micro system and meso system.
- Macro system and meso system.
- Exosystem and microsystem.
- Macro system and micro system.
Question 8
Which of the following best descirbes a parenting style influenced by Watson's theories?
- Rigid and strict.
- Overprotective.
- Permissive.
- Child-centered.
Question 9
According to Skinner, everything we do in life is an operant response influenced by ... .
- The immediate sociocultural context.
- the outcomes of past behavior.
- The behavior of peers.
- Behavior modification.
Question 10
Social learning theory emphasizes ... as the primary mechanism(s) of development.
- Observation and imitation.
- Genetic encoding.
- Reinforcement.
- Social influences.
Question 11
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated ... .
- The pleasure principle.
- Vicarious reinforcement.
- Operant conditioning.
- Basic trust versus mistrust.
Question 12
Though younger children realize that someone else can have a perspective different from theirs, it is not until adolescence that we are able to compare our perspective to a gerenalized other. This ability represents the fourth stage is Roger Selman's ... theory.
- Psychosocial.
- Reciprocal determinism.
- Role-taking.
- Self-socializations.
Question 13
Media use and exposure can impact an individual on every level of the bioecological model. Which
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How does emotion development in children take place? - ExamTest 10
Questions
Question 1
Which theory is based on the idea of Darwin that emotions are innate?
- The functionalist perspective
- The dynamic systems theory.
- The basis-affection system theory.
- The discrete emotions theory.
Question 2
Which of the following statements is true?
- Poor people experience as much depression as rich people.
- The percentage of depression decreases when children reach puberty.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 3
What are two examples of self-aware emotions?
- Shame and anger.
- Fear and Anger.
- Pride and shame.
- Pride and joy.
Question 4
What is the first form of emotional regulation that children develop?
- Looking away from a negative stimulus.
- Crying during a negative stimulus
- Separation anxiety from the primary caregiver.
- Disgust.
Question 5
The first negative emotion you see in young babies is ...
- Anger.
- Sadness.
- Fear.
- First you only see general distress: differentiating between negative emotions is still too difficult.
Question 6
From what age can you see a social smile in babies?
- In the first week after birth.
- After about 3 weeks of age.
- From about 6 weeks of age.
- After 4 to 5 months.
Question 7
Which of the following statements best summarizes the findings by Mischel and his colleagues from their famous marshmallow test?
- The ability to exhibit self-control early in life can predict success later in life.
- The ability to experience and express emotion is a result of human evolution.
- Individuals experience emotions in order to manage their relationship to their environment.
- Infants across all cultures are born with the ability to express the six basic human emotions.
Question 8
Tom is walking down the street and suddenly encounters a dog that is crouched and growling. Tom begins to perspire, his breathing quickens, and his heart rate increases. This reaction is an example of which component of emotions?
- Neural responses.
- Physiological factors.
- Subjective feelings.
- The desire to take action.
Question 9
The notion that humans have evolvd to experience a basic set of emotions through adaptation to their surroundings is central to which theory?
- Functionalist perspective theory.
- The AFFEX approach.
- Display rules theory.
- Discrete emotions theory.
Question 10
How do self-conscious emotions differ from the set of basic emotions discussed in this chapter?
- Self-conscious emotions are thought to be innate.
- Self-conscious emotions tend to occur very early in infancy.
- Self-conscious emotions develop after the child has acquired a sense of himself as separate from others.
- Self-conscious emotions have a consistently negative effect on development.
What do attachment theories say about development? - ExamTest 11
Questions
Question 1
What is the third step in the attachment process according to Bowlby?
- Reciprocal relationships.
- Clear-cut attachment.
- Pre attachment.
- Attachment-in-the-making.
Question 2
Which attachment pattern does not originally belong to the three attachment patterns of Ainsworth?
- Secure attachment.
- Insecure ambivalent attachment.
- Insecure disorganized attachment.
- Insecure avoidant attachment.
Question 3
What is NOT characteristic of an insecure ambivalent child?
- The child behaves very clingy.
- The child calms down through the presence of a stranger.
- The child is difficult to comfort when the mother returns after being separated from her.
- The child is comforted just as easily by a stranger as by the mother after divorce from the mother.
Question 4
The attachment relationship of a child s is often related to the attachment relationship that his / her mother had with her mother. The mother used to have an autonomous attachment style. What will the child get?
- A secure attachment style.
- An insecure ambivalent attachment style
- An insecure-avoidant attachment style
- This cannot be said on the basis of this information.
Question 5
What is NOT an indication that a child has developed a self-image?
- Recognizing itself in the mirror.
- Comparing itself with peers.
- Recognizing deviations from appearance when looking in the mirror.
- Imitating other people's facial expressions.
Question 6
Read the following case carefully: "Rebecca reacts more positively to her mother than to other people. She smiles more often in the presence of her mother than in the presence of other people. She shows no fear of separation and is not actively looking for her mother when her mother is away for a while ".
What stage of the development of an attachment relationship is Rebecca at according to Bowlby?
- Pre-attachment.
- Attachment-in-the-making.
- Clear-cut attachment.
- Reciprocal relationships.
Question 7
Children raised in a parenting style are characterized by increased impulsivity, poor self-control, lower school performance and increased antisocial behavior.
- Authoritative.
- Dismissive-neglectful.
- Permissive.
- Authoritarian.
Question 8
Harlow's work with infant rhesus monkeys found that the monkeys spent more time with the cloth mothers that did not actually feed them than the wire mothers, that did feed them. What is the main implication of this finding?
- The monkeys were not motivated by food.
- The monkeys were drawn to food more than to physical comfort.
- The monkeys were drawn to physical comfort more than to food.
- The monkeys' choices were explained by behaviorism.
Question 9
Three attachment types were initially identified in research by Mary Ainsworth. Which attachment type was later added to categorize those that did not fit well into Ainsworth's initial three categories?
What is the influence of family on the development of children? - ExamTest 12
Questions
Question 1
Which parenting style is described by the following? Parents are cold, nonresponsive and high in demandingness. They are oriented toward control and expect their children to comply without question or explanation.
- Authoritative parenting.
- Authoritarian parenting.
- Permissive parenting.
- Uninvolved parenting.
Question 2
The process through which children acquire the values, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate in their culture is known as ...
- Parenting style.
- Socialization.
- Behaviorism.
- Discipline.
Question 3
A recent trend in famiy structure in the United states is the increasing ages of first-time parents. Which of the following is not true of these older parents compared with younger parents?
- Older parents tend to be more highly educated.
- Older parents tend to earn higher income.
- Older parents tend to use a harsher parenting style.
- Older parents are less likely to get divorced within 10 years of having a child.
Question 4
Recent research has shown which of the following to be true of children of same-sex parents, compared with children of heterosexual parents?
- They exhibit more mental health disorders.
- They tend to perform better socially and academically.
- They are similar in their sexual oreintation and degree of gender-typed behavior.
- They report higher levels of parental aggression in adolescence.
Question 5
Which of the following statements is not true of divorce?
- Young children tend to react more negatively to a parent's remarriage than do young adolescents.
- For children in high-conflict families, divorce may increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for their adjustment.
- Joint custody is the most common arrangement for parents and children after divorce.
- Most children do not suffer significant, enduring problems as a result of their parent's divorce.
Question 6
The process through which children acquire the values, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate in their culture is known as ... .
- Parenting style.
- Socialization.
- Behaviorism.
- Joint attention.
Question 7
Which of the following factors has not been shown to influence children's adjustment in stepfamilies?
- The amount of conflict between the custodial parent and the noncustodial parent.
- The relationship between the noncustodial parent and the stepparent.
- The genders of the child and stepparent.
- The age difference between the biological parent and stepparent.
Question 8
Which of the following descriptions best fits the definition of "other-oriented induction"?
- After a toddler has tkaen a toy from his friend, the toddler's mother scolds him and makes him apologize.
- A father spanks his toddler after that toddler has tkaen a toy from her friend.
- A mother puts her toddler in a time-out after he has taken a toy from his
What is the influence of peers on the development of a child? - ExamTest 13
Questions
Question 1
From which of the following we cannot notice that two young children are friends?
- They defend each other.
- They can verbally tell who their friends are.
- They will call for help when their friend is upset.
- They prefer to play with their friends than with nonfriends.
Question 2
Which term is described by the following? Peer groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves, usually of the same sex and race.
- A clique.
- A crowd.
- A gang.
- A mob.
Question 3
Which of the following is not a sociometric status?
- Rejected children.
- Average children.
- Bullied children.
- Neglected children.
Question 4
What's true about bullied children?
- Friends can be a buffer when experiencing unpleasant events.
- They are often aggressive.
- They often have insensitive parents.
- They often have a controversial sociometric status.
Question 5
What is NOT a bidirectional relationship?
- Someone who is bullied often has few friends.
- Someone who is 4 years old is aggressive. That is why he is also aggressive when he is 8 years old. That is why he is also aggressive when he is 12 years old.
- Someone who is depressed does not sleep well.
- Someone who experiences conflict at home often experiences conflict at school as well.
Question 6
If you have always rejected in your childhood, you are more likely to develop ...
- Internalizing problems and externalizing problems.
- Depression.
- Internalizing problems and social problems.
- Externalizing problems and social problems.
Question 7
Compared to adolescents, young primary school children view friendships more in terms of:
- Sharing the same activities.
- Sharing the same attitude.
- Sharing the same ideas.
- Sharing personal information.
Question 8
The ten-year-old Thomas is social, good at sports, and has a great sense of humor, but he is also aggressive and sometimes disruptive. His classmates see him as conceited. When sociometric status is mapped, Thomas would likely be categorized as:
- Ignored.
- Controversial.
- Average.
- Ignored.
Question 9
Friendships emerge in early childhood as children become more capable of cooperation and coordinated interactions, and as they learn to trust those individuals whom they consider to be friends. Which of the following statements is not true of these early childhood friendships?
- Preschool friends are more likely than nonfriends to resume interactions with each other following a conflict.
- Preschool friends quarrel less with each other than they do with nonfriends.
- Preschool friends tend to resolve conflicts in an equitable manner.
- Pretend play occurs more often between friends than nonfriends.
Question 10
Tyler thinks of himself as socially awkward. He has a few close firends, but tends
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How does moral development take place? - ExamTest 14
Questions
Question 1
According to Piaget, there are two stages of development in children's moral reasoning, with a transitional period between them. During which ages does this transitional period occur?
- From 2 – 4 years old.
- From 4 – 7 years old.
- From 7 – 10 years old.
- From 10 – 12 years old.
Question 2
Which stage does not belong to Kohlberg's theory of moral judgement?
- Preconventional moral reasoning.
- Conventional moral reasoning.
- Postconventional moral reasoning.
- Complete moral reasoning.
Question 3
Kohlberg based his stages of morality on ...
- Reasons behind moral decisions.
- The stages of prosocial development.
- The results of his studies of prosocial dilemmas.
- Evidence that peers have a critical impact on children's moral development.
Question 4
What is the difference between a 2-year-old child and a child attending primary school in terms of aggression?
- Aggression has increased overall.
- Aggression has diminished overall.
- Physical aggression decreases and verbal aggression increases.
- Verbal aggression decreases and physical aggression increases.
Question 5
Katie accidentally breaks four cups as she helps ahar father set the table. Laura accidentally breaks a cup while secretly picking up a cookie from the cookie jar. Rose breaks two cups while fighting with her brother.
Which child deserves the highest punishment according to a child in Piaget's pre-operational stage of development?
- Katie
- Laura.
- Rose.
- They are all seen as equally guilty.
Question 6
Which of the following sentences is an example of instrumental aggression?
- Tony pushes Joyce away so that he can get to the swing first.
- Tony makes sure that Joyce is not allowed to participate in the other children's play.
- Tony tells Joyce that he would like to have the toys she has now.
- Tony destroys Joyce's sand castle because he's angry.
Question 7
According to Piaget, which of the following factors is most influential in the development of children's moral reasoning?
- Adult influence.
- Interactions with peers.
- Societal norms.
- Heredity.
Question 8
Sarah is angry and wants to break her mother's favorite vase. However, she doesn't want to get in trouble for her actions, so she decides to punch a pillow instead. According to Kohlberg's hierarchy, Sarah's behavior is typical of which level of moral development?
- Preconventional
- Developmental.
- Conventional.
- Postconventional.
Question 9
According to social domain theory, at approximately what age do children begin to believe that it is more important to follow moral rules than societal conventions?
- 12 months.
- 6 years.
- 12 years.
- 3 years.
Question 10
Prosocial behavior is best defined as ...
- Behavior based on personal benefit.
- Voluntary
How does gender development take place? - ExamTest 15
Questions
Question 1
Which term is described? The tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, empathetic, or supportive.
- Assertion.
- Collaboration.
- Affiliation.
- Empathy.
Question 2
Which theory that focuses on biological differences regarding gender emphasizes the physical differences between men and women that can have both behavioral and social consequences?
- Evolutionary psychology theory.
- Biosocial theory.
- Neuroscience theory.
- Social science theory.
Question 3
Which theory on gender development proposes that children enact gender-typed behaviors as soon as they can label other people's and their own gender?
- Cognitive developmental theory.
- Social identity theory.
- Social cognitive theory.
- Gender schema theory.
Question 4
The gender similarities hypothesis emphasizes that in areas of cognitive behaviors and social abilities ...
- All measurable differences between the sexes are trivial.
- Boys and girls develop on parallel but unequal tracks.
- Similarities between boys and girls far outweigh differences.
- Differences between boys and girls outweigh similarities.
Question 5
Rose is a 9-year-old girl. She strongly prefers wearing t-shirts and jeans to dresses and other "girly" clothes. She loves sports and hates playing with dolls. Rose's preferences are an example of ... .
- Gender-role intensification.
- Cross-gender-typed behavior.
- Cisgender modeling.
- Gender segregation.
Question 6
Gender typing refers to ...
- The identification of an individual based on sex chromosomes.
- An individual's personal identification as male, female, or neither.
- The process of gender socialization that occurs during development.
- The genetic forces that determine an individual's sex during prenatal development.
Question 7
The use of gendered nouns and pronouns, the association of certain hair styles with specific genders, and the gender differentiation of specific colors are all examples of which of the following?
- The psychological salience of gender.
- Gender identity.
- Organizational influences.
- Gender-role intensification.
Question 8
Finnegan, a 5-year-old boy, is given a choice between playing with a toy truck or a ballerina doll. He chooses the truck, because he has learned that boys play with trucks and girls play with dolls. This episode illustrates the child's ... .
- Interest filter.
- Intersectionality.
- Gender schema filter.
- Gender segregation.
Question 9
Exposure to high levels of prenatal androgens in genetic females may influence the development of their nervous system in such a way that result in certain cross-gender-typed behaviors. This example demonstrates the effect of ... .
- Activating influences.
- Cisgender disposition.
- Organizing influences.
- Self-socialization.
Question 10
Which of the following statements is most representative of Kohlberg's conception of the gender constancy stage?
- "Girls can have babies, boys cannot."
- "I am a boy today, but could be a girl tomorrow."
- "Even if I cut
What conclusions can we draw from the chapters of this book? - ExamTest 16
Questions
Question 1
When do genetically influenced characteristics become evident?
- Directly after birth.
- When children are toddlers.
- During preschool.
- During middle childhood, adolescence or adulthood.
Question 2
Fill in:
When children encounter an unfamiliar stimulus, they accommodate / assimilate it to more familiar stimuli. At the same time, their understanding accommodates / assimilates to the experience, so that when they next encounter the unfamiliar stimulus will feel less strange.
- Accommodate, accommodates.
- Assimilate, assimilates.
- Accommodate, assimilates.
- Assimilate, accommodates.
Question 3
Which of the following is true?
- Children from poorer families are more often secure attached.
- Depression is more common among poor families.
- Only statement 1 is true.
- Only statement 2 is true.
- Both statements are true.
- Both statements are false.
Question 4
Which of the following statement accurately descirbes the interaction of nature and nurture?
- Nature does its work before birth, and nurture takes over only after birth.
- Nature's influence continues through infancy before giving way to the influence of nurture.
- Nature and nurture begin interacting on the fetus in the womb, and both continue to shape the individual's development.
- The role that both nature and nurture play in development is often overstated.
Question 5
Which of the following is an example of the crucial role that timing plays in the potential impact of a teratogen?
- The diet of a pregnant mother will influence taste preferences that the fetus will exhibit after birth.
- By age 12 months, infants lose the ability to hear the difference between similar sounds that they do not encounter on a regular basis.
- A virus will cause damage to the development of a fetus if contracted by the pregnant mother at specific sensitive times during pregnancy.
- It is more difficult for children older than 11 or 12 years of age to gain competence in a new language than it is for younger children.
Question 6
The emerging fiel of epigenetics has helped to explain the ways in which a child's environment can influence gene expression. Which of the following is an example of this interaction?
- Children with certain types of brain damage will perform on par with other children on IQ tests up to a certain age but will fall behind after that point.
- It is more difficult for children older than 11 or 12 years of age to gain competence in a new language than it is for younger children.
- A child who loses capability in one sense, such as sight, will often compensate with enhanced ability in another sense.
- The amount of stress that a mother experiences during her child's infancy can affect that child's ability to regulate reaction to stress
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- What is the book about?
- Summaries per chapter
- ExamTests per chapter
- Related summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
Development, Learning and behaviour: Samenvattingen, uittreksels, aantekeningen en oefenvragen - UU
Boeksamenvattingen, BulletPoints en ExamTickets bij How Children Develop van Siegler
Boeksamenvattingen, BulletPoints en ExamTickets bij How Children Develop van Siegler
Bundle of Summaries of Chapters for the Theory component of Module 2
In this Bundle I added the summaries which are content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 2 (Social Behaviour) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands, those are:
Summary of Chapter 12 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
Summary of Chapter 13 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
Summary of Chapter 14 of the How Children Develop Book (Robert Siegler, 1st Edition)
Summary of Chapter 9 of the Social Psychology Book (Kassin, Fein, Markus, 11th Edition)
Hoorcollege aantekeningen - Development, Learning & Behavior - Universiteit Utrecht (2022/2023)
In deze bundel worden alle aantekeningen van het vak Development, Learning and Behavior gezet. De cursus wordt in het engels gegeven dus de aantekeningen zullen ook grotendeels in het engels zijn. De hoorcolleges zijn vooraf opgenomen, waarbij sommige daarvan wat korter zijn (20-45 minuten), deze worden wel los geüpload, maar hier zijn dus minder aantekeningen bij te vinden. De aantekeningen worden (twee)wekelijks geüpload!
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- What is the book about?
- Summaries per chapter
- ExamTests per chapter
- Related summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
Summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition
- Summaries and study notes with the 5th edition
- Showcased summaries and study notes with developmental psychology
Samenvattingen en studiehulp voor Pedagogiek B1 aan de Universiteit Utrecht - Jaar 2022-2023
In deze bundel worden o.a. samenvattingen, oefententamens en collegeaantekeningen gedeeld voor de opleiding Pedagogische wetenschappen, jaar 1, aan de Universiteit Utrecht
Voor een compleet overzicht van de door JoHo aangeboden samenvattingen & studiehulp en de beschikbare geprinte samenvattingen voor dit vak ga je naar de Samenvattingen Shop Pedagogiek - UU - B1 op JoHo.org
Boeksamenvattingen, BulletPoints en ExamTickets bij How Children Develop van Siegler
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition of How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- What is the book about?
- Summaries per chapter
- ExamTests per chapter
- Related summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
Summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al. - Bundle
Summaries and study notes with How Children Develop by Siegler et al.
- Summaries and study notes with the 6th edition
- Summaries and study notes with the 5th edition
- Showcased summaries and study notes with developmental psychology
ExamTickets - How Children Develop from Siegler e.a. - 5th edition
Exam Tickets
- Genotype and phenotype can be separated because in genotype the word 'gene' is present. Phenotype begins with the 'ph' = physical: external characteristics.
- A tip to keep crystallized and fluid intelligence apart: a crystal needs a long time to form, so crystallized intelligence is the form of intelligence that gradually gets higher and higher during life, because more and more knowledge is being collected. On the other hand, fluid intelligence has a peak during the 20th year of life, which you can remember when you are around your 20th life year in your most optimal physical state, in which (among other things) your sporting performances will be at its peak. In addition, fluid intelligence requires a certain degree of flexibility because it is about understanding relationships between concepts that are new. Flexibility also decreases with aging.
- Chapter 16 is one of the most important chapters from the entire book. Here the core principles from the book are treated once again; in addition, connections are made between all the different subjects. This chapter is therefore important to understand and know well.
- Three reasons why the development of children is studied: (1) to help parents learn how to deal with negative emotions of their children, (2) to develop a responsible policy and (3) to better understand the nature of people.
- A tip for separating and visualizing reliability and validity. Imagine yourself a dartboard, you want to get your darts in the bullseye. Imagine, you have ten arrows ('measurements') and you throw them all in the bull's eye: in the statistics your research would now be both valid (because you have thrown them all into the bullseye) and are reliable (all measurements sit at the same point). However, suppose that the measurements are all at the top left of the dartboard, your measurement is reliable (repetition provides the same result), but not valid (not in the rose).
- The development process of the fertilized egg consists of four processes, to be remembered with the letters M-Cm-Cd-A: M itose: cell division, this takes place from 12 hours after fertilization; Celmigration: the displacement of newly formed cells away from their original location; Celdifferentiation: all embryonic stem cells can develop in any type of cell, these cells will now specialize in structure and function; Apoptose: cell killing, here, for example, the membranes between fingers and toes are removed.
- REM and non-REM sleep can be distinguished by remembering that the letters REM represent Rapid Eye Movement, REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements and is thus an active sleep phase, while the non-REM sleep is not.
- Piagets theory consists of the following stages, which are to remember with S - PO - CO - FO: the phase sensorimotoric, preoperational phase, the concrete operational phase, and the formal operational phase.
- To summarize how the different theories, describe learning of the child: Piaget's theory sees a child
How Children Develop by Siegler, Deloache & Eisenberg - Practice Questions
Questions
1. Why and how is child development studied?
1. Which statement is true?
- It is not possible to suppose that children tell the truth in court.
- Specifically, young children are susceptible for suggestive questioning, when questions are repeated again and again.
- A. Only statement 1 is true.
- B. Only statement 2 is true.
- C. Both statements are true.
- D. Both statements are false.
2. Which statement is true? Children can experience negative effects when they...
- A. Have been in an unstable environment longer than 1 month after birth.
- B. Have been in an unstable environment longer than 3 months after birth.
- C. Have been in an unstable environment longer than 6 months after birth.
- D. Have been in an unstable environment longer than 1 year after birth.
3. Which general conclusion can be drawn about continuous/discontinuous development, despite some disagreement over the topic?
- A. Development is mainly a continuous process.
- B. Development is mainly a discontinuous process, as proved in the stage theories.
- C. It depends on how you look at it and how often you look.
- D. Development is sometimes a continuous and sometimes a discontinuous process.
2. What does prenatal development look like?
1. When does a fertilized egg be called 'fetus'?
- A. Directly after conception.
- B. After three weeks.
- C. After nine weeks.
- D. After three months.
2. What is cell differentiation?
- A. The process that takes place 12 hours after fertilization.
- B. The process whereby cells specialize in structure and function.
- C. The process of movement of newly formed cells away from their original location.
- D. The process whereby redundant cells are destroyed.
3. Which of the following is no consequence of being small for gestational age?
- A. Learning problems.
- B. Social problems.
- C. Increased risk of infections.
- D. Insufficient growth.
3. What is the relation between nature and nurture?
1. Which of the following is true?
- Adoption studies examine whether siblings who grew up apart, are more different than siblings who were raised together.
- Adoptive twin studies compare identical twins who grew up together versus identical twins who were raised apart.
- A. Only statement 1 is true.
- B. Only statement 2 is true.
- C. Both statements are true.
- D. Both statements are false.
2. Which statement about heritability is true?
- A. Heritability gives information about certain populations.
- B. Heritability gives information about individuals.
- C. High heritability means that a certain trait is unchangeable.
- D. Heritability gives information about differences between certain groups.
4. Which theories of cognitive development exist?
1. Which concept of Piaget is defined by the following: The process by which people process incoming information according to concepts they already understand.
- A. Modification
- B. Equilibration
- C. Assimilation
- D. Accommodation
2. Which of the following is the right order of Piaget's stages?
- A. Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.
- B. Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, formal operational stage, concrete operational stage.
- C. Preoperational stage, sensorimotor stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.
- D. Preoperational stage, sensorimotor stage, formal operational stage, concrete operational
How Children Develop by Siegler, Deloache & Eisenberg - BulletPoints (EN)
Why and how is child development studied? - BulletPoint 1
- Plato argued that self-control for children and discipline for parents are the purpose of good parenting and education. He also believed that knowledge is innate. Aristotle stressed the importance of the individual character of children. Hereby, the quality of parenting is important. Aristotle believed that knowledge is acquired through experiences. Locke argued that parents should raise their children with discipline.
- Nature is our biological heritage, the genes we receive from our parents, the innate aspects of a human being. Nurture is the environment, both physical and social, influencing our development, the acquired aspects of a human being. Nature and nurture interact. The genome (the complete set of hereditary information) influences behavior and experiences, but behavior and experiences also influence the genome. This discovery has given rise to the epigenetics, the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment. Evidence for the enduring epigenetic impact of early experiences and behaviors comes from research on methylation, a biochemical process that reduces expression of a variety of genes. To conclude, both genes and environment are important in development.
- A continuous development is the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small steps, quantity is important. A discontinuous development is the idea that changes with age include sudden large steps, quality is important. According to the stage theories, development consists of four large steps which are discontinuous, and age related. One of the best-known stage theories is Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the development of thinking and reasoning. This theory holds that children go through four stages of cognitive growth, each characterized by distinct intellectual abilities and ways of understanding the world. However, many researchers have concluded that developmental changes are mostly gradual.
- In the development of effortful attention, brain activity, genes and learning experiences play a role. Effortful attention involves voluntary control of one's emotions and thoughts. Difficulty in exerting effortful attention is associated with different behavioral problems.
- The scientific method is an approach to test beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis (testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations), testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion. Different measures exist to test hypotheses. These measures need to possess reliability, validity and relevance to the hypothesis. Reliability is the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent. Interrater reliability is the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior. Test-retest reliability is the degree of similarity of a participant's performance on two or more occasions. Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. Internal validity is the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing. External validity is the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research.
What does prenatal development look like? – BulletPoint 2
- Gametes
Samenvatting How Children Develop 5e editie - Siegler, et al.
Nederlandse samenvatting met Engelse bulletpoints en oefenvragen van het boek How Children Develop, 5e editie, geschreven door R. Siegler, J. R. Saffran, N. Eisenberg, J. DeLoache en E. Gershoff.
How Children Develop - Siegler, Deloache & Eisenberg samenvatting bij de 4e druk
- Waarom onderzoeken we de ontwikkeling van een kind? - 1
- Wat zijn historische ideeën over de ontwikkeling van een kind?
- Welke aspecten in de ontwikkeling van een kind zijn belangrijk?
- Welke methoden zijn er om de ontwikkeling van een kind te bestuderen?
- Welke ethische kwesties zijn er?
- Hoe verloopt de prenatale ontwikkeling? - 2
- Wat is het ontwikkelingsproces voor de geboorte?
- Welke ongelukken kunnen er gebeuren bij prenatale ontwikkeling?
- Hoe verloopt de geboorte?
- Welke negatieve gevolgen kunnen zich na de geboorte voordoen?
- Welke genetische en omgevingsinvloeden zijn er? - 3
- Wat is gedragsgenetica?
- Hoe verloopt de ontwikkeling van de hersenen?
- Welke processen vinden er in de hersenen plaats?
- Hoe verloopt de groei en ontwikkeling van het lichaam?
- Welke theorieën over cognitieve ontwikkeling zijn er? - 4
- Waar richt de theorie van Piaget zich op?
- Wat zegt de information-processing theorie van Klahr?
- Wat is kenmerkend aan een kennistheorie?
- Waaruit bestaan socio-culturele theorieën?
- Wat zijn dynamische systeemtheorieën?
- Wat is het verband tussen zien, denken en doen? - 5
- Hoe verloopt de visuele ontwikkeling en welke definities zijn belangrijk?
- Hoe verloopt de auditieve ontwikkeling?
- Wanneer ontwikkelt het vermogen tot proeven en ruiken zich?
- Waarom is de tast belangrijk voor baby's?
- Wat is inter-modale perceptie?
- Hoe verloopt de motorische ontwikkeling?
- Welke manieren van leren hanteren baby's?
- Hoe verloopt de taalontwikkeling? - 6
- Welke componenten heeft taal?
- Op welke manier kunnen we taal begrijpen?
- Wat is het proces van taal?
- Welke theorieën over taalontwikkeling zijn er?
- Hoe werkt het gebruik van non-verbale symbolen in de ontwikkeling?
- Hoe verloopt de conceptuele ontwikkeling? - 7
- Op welke manier kunnen kinderen dingen onderscheiden?
- Wat is er nodig om andere mensen en jezelf te begrijpen?
- Op welke manier nemen we kennis van levende dingen?
- Hoe begrijpen we waar, wanneer, waarom en hoeveel?
- Wat is intelligentie en hoe ontwikkelt het zich? - 8
- Hoe kun je intelligentie beschrijven?
- Hoe kan intelligentie gemeten worden?
- Welke invloed hebben genen en omgeving?
- Welke alternatieve perspectieven zijn er?
- Hoe ontstaat het vermogen tot lezen?
- Hoe ontstaat het vermogen tot schrijven?
- Hoe ontstaat het vermogen tot rekenen?
- Welke theorieën over sociale ontwikkeling bestaan er? - 9
- Welke invloed hebben psychoanalytische theorieën?
- Waar richten leertheorieën zich op?
- Wat is de kern van sociaal-cognitieve theorieën?
- Waar richten ecologische theorieën zich op?
- Hoe verloopt de emotionele ontwikkeling? - 10
- Wat zijn positieve emoties?
- Wat zijn negatieve emoties?
- Wat zijn zelfbewuste emoties?
- Welke kenmerken heeft depressie bij kinderen?
- Hoe gaat het reguleren van emoties in zijn werk?
- Waarom is het begrijpen van emoties belangrijk?
- Wat is hechting en hoe ontwikkelt het zich?
Development, Learning and behaviour: Samenvattingen, uittreksels, aantekeningen en oefenvragen - UU
Development, Learning and behaviour: Samenvattingen, uittreksels, aantekeningen en oefenvragen - UU
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