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What is Biology & Biological Sciences?

Biology is the fascinating and ever-expanding field dedicated to studying life on Earth. It encompasses all living organisms, from the microscopic world of bacteria to the towering giants of the redwood forest. Biologists delve into the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of life across the planet.

What are the main topics involved with Biology & Biological Sciences?

  • Biochemistry: Focuses on the chemistry of life, exploring the structure, function, and interactions of molecules essential for biological processes.
  • Cell Biology: Examines the fundamental unit of life, the cell, its structure, function, and how different cell types work together in an organism.
  • Genetics: Investigates genes, heredity, and how traits are passed down from generation to generation.
  • Microbiology: Studies microscopic organisms like bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi, and their impact on health and the environment.
  • Molecular Biology: Zooms in on the role of molecules like DNA and RNA in cellular processes and heredity.
  • Zoology: Delves into the animal kingdom, its diversity, behavior, evolution, and conservation.
  • Botany: Focuses on plants, their structure, physiology, ecology, and evolution.
  • Ecology: Examines the interactions between living organisms and their environment, including how populations, communities, and ecosystems function.
  • Evolutionary Biology: Studies how living things change over time and the mechanisms that drive this change, such as natural selection.

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What is biology?

What is biology?

Biology is the fascinating and ever-expanding field dedicated to studying life on Earth. It encompasses all living organisms, from the microscopic world of bacteria to the towering giants of the redwood forest. Biologists delve into the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of life across the planet.

What are the main features of biology?

  • Diversity of Life: Biology celebrates the incredible variety of life forms, from single-celled organisms to complex ecosystems teeming with interacting species.
  • Unity in Diversity: Despite this vast diversity, there are unifying principles that tie all living things together. These include the use of DNA as genetic material and the processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis, which power life.
  • Scientific Approach: Biologists rely on the scientific method to ask questions about living things. They gather evidence through observation and experimentation, and form testable hypotheses to understand the natural world.

What are important sub-areas in biology?

Due to the immense breadth of biology, specialization is essential. Here are some of the most prominent sub-areas:

  • Biochemistry: Focuses on the chemistry of life, exploring the structure, function, and interactions of molecules essential for biological processes.
  • Cell Biology: Explores the fundamental unit of life, the cell. It examines cell structure, function, and how different cell types work together in an organism.
  • Genetics: Investigates genes, heredity, and how traits are passed down from generation to generation.
  • Microbiology: Studies microscopic organisms like bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi, and their impact on health and the environment.
  • Molecular Biology: Zooms in on the role of molecules like DNA and RNA in cellular processes and heredity.
  • Zoology: Delves into the animal kingdom, its diversity, behavior, evolution, and conservation.
  • Botany: Focuses on plants, their structure, physiology, ecology, and evolution.
  • Ecology: Examines the interactions between living organisms and their environment, including how populations, communities, and ecosystems function.
  • Evolutionary Biology: Studies how living things change over time and the mechanisms that drive this change, such as natural selection.

What are key concepts in biology?

  • Cell Theory: The cornerstone of biology, stating that all living things are composed of cells, the basic units of life.
  • DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information and is responsible for heredity.
  • Evolution by Natural Selection: The theory proposed by Charles Darwin, explaining how organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to evolution of populations over time.
  • Homeostasis: The ability of an organism or a biological system to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.
  • Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, allowing them to grow, reproduce, maintain their structure, and respond to their environment.

Who are influential figures in biology?

  • Louis Pasteur: A French microbiologist whose discoveries on vaccines and fermentation had a profound impact on public health.
  • Charles Darwin: A British naturalist who revolutionized our understanding of life with his theory of evolution by natural selection.
  • Gregor Mendel: An Austrian monk considered the father of genetics for his pioneering work on inheritance
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Summaries: the best definitions, descriptions and lists of terms for developmental biology

Summaries: the best definitions, descriptions and lists of terms for developmental biology

Key terms, definitions and concepts summarized in the field of developmental biology

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  • Contents: a selection of terms, definitions and concepts for developmental biology
  • Study areas: developmental biology, biological ethics
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What is developmental biology?

What is developmental biology?

Developmental biology is the scientific study of how organisms grow and develop from a single cell (zygote) to their final form. It explores the underlying genetic and environmental factors that shape the development of various tissues, organs, and body structures.

What are the main features of developmental biology?

  • Interdisciplinary field: It draws on insights from genetics, molecular biology, cell biology, embryology, and evolutionary biology.
  • Focus on pattern formation: It investigates how cells organize themselves into specific patterns and structures during development.
  • Key stages of development: Developmental biologists study key stages of development, including fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis, and metamorphosis.

Why is developmental biology important?

  • Understanding life processes: It provides fundamental insights into the mechanisms that govern the growth and development of all living organisms.
  • Medical applications: Developmental biology has significant implications for medical research, including the study of birth defects, regenerative medicine, and cancer biology.
  • Evolutionary biology: It helps us understand the evolutionary origins of different body plans and the genetic changes that underlie them.

What are applications of developmental biology?

  • Stem cell research: Understanding developmental processes can help us harness the potential of stem cells for regenerative medicine.
  • Cancer research: Studying developmental pathways can shed light on the mechanisms that drive cancer development and progression.
  • Drug discovery: Developmental biology can be used to identify new drug targets for treating diseases related to developmental defects.
  • Agricultural biotechnology: Understanding plant development can help improve crop yields and resistance to pests and diseases.

Example

One classic example of developmental biology research is the study of Drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies). Fruit flies have been used extensively as a model organism to investigate the genetic basis of development, providing valuable insights into fundamental developmental processes.

Critical comments

  • Complexity: Developmental processes are highly complex and involve a multitude of interacting factors.
  • Ethical considerations: Research on embryonic development raises ethical concerns, particularly when involving human embryos or stem cells.
  • Species-specific differences: While many developmental principles are conserved across species, there can be significant differences in the details of development.
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What is biological ethics?

What is biological ethics?

Biological ethics is a branch of applied ethics that deals with moral issues arising from the study and application of biology. It encompasses a wide range of topics, including:

  • Genetics: Issues related to genetic testing, genetic engineering, and gene therapy
  • Medicine: Ethical considerations in medical research, patient autonomy, and end-of-life care
  • Animal welfare: Ethical treatment of animals in research, agriculture, and entertainment
  • Environmental ethics: Issues related to biodiversity conservation, climate change, and sustainable resource use

What are the main features of biological ethics?

  • Interdisciplinary nature: It draws on insights from philosophy, sociology, law, and other disciplines.
  • Complex issues: Biological ethics often involves complex moral dilemmas with no easy solutions.
  • Balancing competing interests: Biological ethics seeks to balance the interests of individuals, animals, and society as a whole.

Why is biological ethics important?

  • Guiding research and practice: Biological ethics provides a framework for making morally sound decisions in scientific research and medical practice.
  • Protecting human rights: It helps to protect the rights of individuals, such as the right to privacy and informed consent.
  • Promoting animal welfare: It ensures that animals are treated ethically in research, agriculture, and other contexts.
  • Addressing environmental concerns: It helps to address pressing environmental issues, such as climate change and biodiversity loss.

What are applications of biological ethics?

  • Informed consent: Ensuring that individuals provide informed consent for medical procedures and research participation.
  • Animal welfare guidelines: Developing and enforcing guidelines for the ethical treatment of animals in research and other settings.
  • Genetic counseling: Providing guidance to individuals and families facing genetic health issues.
  • Policy development: Developing policies related to issues such as stem cell research, gene editing, and environmental conservation.

Example

A classic example of a biological ethics dilemma is the debate over stem cell research. While embryonic stem cells offer great potential for medical advancements, their use raises ethical concerns about the destruction of human embryos. Biological ethics can help to navigate this complex issue by considering the potential benefits and harms of different approaches.

Critical comments

  • Cultural and religious differences: Biological ethics can be influenced by cultural and religious beliefs, which can make it challenging to reach universal consensus.
  • Rapid technological advancements: The rapid pace of technological advancements in biology can outpace the development of ethical guidelines, creating a need for ongoing reflection and adaptation.
  • Subjectivity: Some aspects of biological ethics involve subjective judgments about values and priorities, which can make it difficult to reach definitive conclusions.
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What is a zygote?

What is a zygote?

A zygote is the single-celled organism that forms when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell. It represents the initial stage of life for a new individual.  

What are the main features of a zygote?

  • Diploid: Contains a complete set of chromosomes, half from each parent.  
  • Totipotent: Has the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body.
  • Undergoes rapid division: The zygote undergoes a process called cleavage, where it rapidly divides into multiple cells.  

Why is the zygote important?

  • Genetic blueprint: It carries the genetic information that will determine the traits of the developing organism.  
  • Foundation of development: The zygote is the starting point for the entire process of embryonic development.  
  • Basis of reproduction: The formation of a zygote is essential for sexual reproduction.

What are the applications of zygote research?

  • In vitro fertilization (IVF): Zygotes are created in a laboratory setting to assist in fertility treatments.
  • Stem cell research: Zygotes can be used to derive embryonic stem cells, which have the potential to differentiate into various cell types.
  • Genetic testing: Zygotes can be tested for genetic disorders before implantation, a process known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).  

Example

A fertilized human egg cell is a zygote. It begins its journey through the fallopian tube, eventually implanting in the uterine wall and developing into an embryo.  

Critical comments

  • Ethical concerns: The use of zygotes in research, particularly embryonic stem cell research, raises ethical questions about the beginning of life and the destruction of potential human beings.
  • Limitations: While zygotes have immense potential, their development is influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors, making it difficult to fully understand and control.
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What is Sonic hedgehog?

What is Sonic hedgehog?

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a secreted signaling protein that plays a crucial role in embryonic development and tissue patterning in various organisms. It is a member of the Hedgehog family of proteins, which are highly conserved across different species.

What are the main features of Sonic hedgehog?

  • Morphogen: Shh acts as a morphogen, meaning it can influence the development of different cell types and tissues based on its concentration gradient.
  • Patterning: Shh is involved in the patterning of various structures, including the nervous system, limbs, and facial features.
  • Regulation: The activity of Shh is tightly regulated by a complex network of signaling pathways and feedback mechanisms.

What is the importance of Sonic hedgehog?

Shh is essential for proper embryonic development and the formation of various organs and tissues. Dysregulation of Shh signaling can lead to birth defects and developmental disorders.

What are the applications of Sonic hedgehog in practice?

Understanding Shh signaling has significant implications for medicine and research. Some applications include:

  • Stem cell research: Shh can be used to induce the differentiation of stem cells into various cell types, such as neurons and muscle cells.
  • Cancer research: Shh signaling is implicated in the development and progression of certain types of cancer, and targeting Shh pathways may be a potential therapeutic strategy.
  • Developmental biology: Studying Shh signaling can help researchers understand the mechanisms that underlie the formation of complex structures and patterns during embryonic development.

Example

A well-known example of Shh signaling is its role in limb development. Shh is produced in the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) at the posterior end of the limb bud. The concentration gradient of Shh across the limb bud helps to determine the patterning of digits, with the thumb being formed by cells exposed to the highest concentration of Shh and the pinky finger being formed by cells exposed to the lowest concentration.

Critical comments

While Shh is a well-studied signaling molecule, there are still many unanswered questions about its precise mechanisms of action and regulation. Further research is needed to fully understand the complex interactions between Shh and other signaling pathways that contribute to embryonic development and tissue patterning.

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Summaries: the best definitions, descriptions and lists of terms for genomics

Summaries: the best definitions, descriptions and lists of terms for genomics

Key terms, definitions and concepts summarized in the field of genomics

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  • Contents: a selection of terms, definitions and concepts for genomics
  • Study areas: genomics
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What are chromosomes?

What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are the tightly packaged structures within a cell's nucleus that carry an organism's genetic information. They are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins, and act like an instruction manual containing the blueprints for building and maintaining an organism.

What are the key features of chromosomes?

  • DNA Carriers: Chromosomes are composed primarily of DNA, the molecule that encodes the instructions for building and regulating an organism. Each chromosome carries a specific set of genes.
  • Linear Structure: DNA within a chromosome is not randomly packed but rather organized in a linear fashion. This linear arrangement determines gene order and plays a role in gene expression.
  • Number Variation: The number of chromosomes varies between species. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), while fruit flies have only 8 and some fern species have hundreds.
  • Duplication and Segregation: Before cell division, chromosomes replicate themselves to ensure each daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic information. During cell division, chromosomes segregate (separate) and are distributed equally to the daughter cells.

What is the importance of chromosomes?

Chromosomes are essential for life as we know it. They play a crucial role in:

  • Heredity: Chromosomes are passed from parents to offspring during reproduction, ensuring the inheritance of genetic traits.
  • Gene Expression: The genes located on chromosomes contain the instructions for making proteins, the building blocks and functional molecules within cells. Chromosomes influence which genes are turned on or off at specific times and locations within an organism.
  • Cell Division: Proper replication and segregation of chromosomes during cell division ensure each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information.

What are the applications of chromosomes in practice?

  • Karyotyping: Analyzing chromosome number and structure can identify chromosomal abnormalities linked to genetic disorders like Down syndrome.
  • Genetic Testing: Examining specific genes on chromosomes can help identify individuals at risk for certain inherited diseases.
  • Prenatal Diagnosis: Techniques like amniocentesis can analyze fetal chromosomes to identify potential genetic abnormalities before birth.
  • Gene Mapping: Identifying the location of specific genes on chromosomes is crucial for understanding gene function and developing new therapies.

Practical example

Think of a chromosome as a long string of beads, where each bead represents a gene. The order of the beads (genes) is crucial. In humans, one pair of chromosomes determines sex (XX for females, XY for males). During reproduction, each parent contributes one chromosome from this pair to their offspring, influencing the child's sex.

Critical remarks

  • Chromosomal Abnormalities: Errors in chromosome number or structure can lead to various genetic disorders. These may involve missing or extra chromosomes, or rearrangements within a chromosome.
  • Gene Regulation Complexity: While chromosomes house the genetic blueprint, understanding how genes are turned on and off at specific times and locations remains a complex area of research.
  • Ethical Considerations: Advances in chromosome manipulation raise ethical concerns, such as the potential for creating designer babies with specific traits.
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What is mitosis?

What is mitosis?

Mitosis is a fundamental process by which a eukaryotic cell duplicates its genetic material (DNA) and divides to form two daughter cells. These daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell and possess the same number of chromosomes.

What are the key features of mitosis?

  • Accurate Replication: Mitosis ensures the faithful duplication and distribution of chromosomes, maintaining genetic stability from generation to generation.
  • Ordered Stages: Mitosis is a precisely choreographed sequence of events, typically divided into five phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
  • Mitotic Apparatus: Microtubules, protein structures, form the mitotic spindle, a crucial apparatus that orchestrates chromosome movement during cell division.

What is the importance of mitosis?

Mitosis is essential for life as we know it. It underpins several critical processes:

  • Growth and Development: Enables multicellular organisms to grow and develop from a single fertilized egg into complex tissues and organs.
  • Tissue Repair: Mitosis allows tissues to repair themselves after injury by replacing damaged cells.
  • Asexual Reproduction: Mitosis is the sole mechanism for cell division in asexual reproduction, resulting in offspring genetically identical to the parent.

What are the applications of mitosis in practice?

  • Cancer Treatment: Understanding mitosis is vital in cancer research, as uncontrolled cell division is a hallmark of the disease. Therapies targeting mitosis can potentially halt cancer progression.
  • Regenerative Medicine: Mitosis plays a role in tissue regeneration, and researchers are exploring ways to stimulate mitosis for therapeutic purposes, such as healing wounds or damaged organs.
  • Cell Culture: Mitosis enables the large-scale growth of cells in culture dishes, a vital tool for biological research and drug discovery.

Practical example

The growth of skin cells provides a relatable example of mitosis. As our skin is constantly exposed to wear and tear, basal cells in the lower layer of the epidermis undergo mitosis to generate new skin cells that replace old or damaged ones, maintaining a healthy outer layer.

Critical remarks

  • Errors in Mitosis: Errors during mitosis can lead to genetic mutations and chromosomal abnormalities, potentially contributing to cancer and other diseases.
  • Regulation of Mitosis: Tight regulation of mitosis is essential for proper development and tissue homeostasis. Disruptions in this regulation can have detrimental consequences.
  • Incomplete Knowledge: Despite extensive research, there's still much to learn about the intricate control mechanisms governing mitosis.
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What is meiosis?

What is meiosis?

Meiosis is a specialized cell division process that shuffles genetic material to create four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell. This process is vital for sexual reproduction in eukaryotes.

What are the key features of meiosis?

  • Two Meiotic Divisions: Meiosis consists of two consecutive cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in four haploid daughter cells from a single diploid parent cell.
  • Genetic Shuffling: During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over, exchanging genetic material between them. This, along with the random segregation of chromosomes, leads to genetic variation in the daughter cells.
  • Haploid Gametes: Meiosis produces haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, restores the diploid chromosome number in the offspring.

What is the importance of meiosis?

Meiosis plays a critical role in sexual reproduction by:

  • Genetic Diversity: It introduces genetic variation in offspring, which is essential for adaptation and evolution. Offspring inherit a unique combination of genes from both parents, allowing populations to adapt to changing environments.
  • Haploid Gametes: Meiosis ensures the formation of haploid gametes, which is necessary for fertilization and the creation of a diploid zygote in the next generation.

What are the applications of meiosis in practice?

  • Genetic Engineering: Understanding meiosis is crucial in manipulating genes during the development of genetically modified organisms.
  • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Meiosis is considered during assisted reproductive techniques like IVF, where understanding sperm and egg formation is essential.
  • Evolutionary Studies: Meiosis is a key factor in generating genetic diversity, which researchers study to understand the process of evolution and speciation.

Practical example

Imagine a pea plant with flower color determined by two genes. Meiosis in the pea plant's stamen cells (pollen-producing organs) shuffles these genes. The resulting pollen grains will have various combinations of these genes, leading to offspring with potentially different flower colors compared to the parent plant.

Critical remarks

  • Errors in Meiosis: Errors during meiosis, such as nondisjunction (chromosomes failing to separate properly), can result in offspring with abnormal chromosome numbers, potentially leading to genetic disorders like Down syndrome.
  • Regulation Complexity: The intricate regulation of chromosome pairing and segregation during meiosis is still being unraveled by scientists.
  • Environmental Influences: Environmental factors like radiation exposure can potentially impact meiosis and increase the risk of chromosomal abnormalities.
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What is a virus?

What is a virus?

A virus is a tiny, infectious agent that can only reproduce inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and far simpler in structure. They lack the machinery needed to replicate on their own and rely on host cells to provide the necessary resources.

  • Viruses come in various shapes and sizes, but all share some common features:
    • Genetic material: They contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, but never both.
    • Protein capsid: A protective protein shell surrounds the genetic material.
    • (Some viruses also have an) Envelope: A membranous layer derived from the host cell surrounds the capsid in some viruses.

What are the main features of a virus?

  • Obligate parasites: Viruses cannot reproduce on their own. They invade host cells, hijack cellular machinery, and use it to produce new viral particles.
  • Specificity: Different viruses have specific host ranges, meaning they can only infect particular types of cells or organisms.
  • High mutation rate: Viral genomes can mutate rapidly, allowing them to evolve and evade host defenses.

Why is a virus important?

  • Viruses are the most abundant biological entity on Earth and play a significant role in ecosystems.
  • They cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants, impacting global health and agriculture.
  • Studying viruses is crucial for developing vaccines, antiviral drugs, and understanding fundamental biological processes.

What are the applications of a virus in practice?

  • Vaccinations: Vaccines work by exposing the body to weakened or inactive forms of a virus, stimulating the immune system to develop immunity and prevent future infections.
  • Gene Therapy: Viral vectors, modified viruses, can be used to deliver therapeutic genes into cells for treating genetic diseases.
  • Phage Therapy: Certain viruses (bacteriophages) specifically target and kill bacteria. This approach is being explored as an alternative to antibiotics for combating antibiotic-resistant infections.

Practical example

  • The common cold is a classic example of a viral disease. Rhinoviruses, belonging to a group of single-stranded RNA viruses, are the most frequent culprits. These viruses infect the upper respiratory tract, causing symptoms like runny nose, sore throat, and coughing.

Critical comments

  • Viral infections can range from mild to life-threatening, and some viruses lack effective treatments.
  • The rapid evolution of viruses poses a constant challenge in developing vaccines and antiviral drugs.
  • The misuse of viral vectors in gene therapy raises biosafety concerns.
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What is evolution?

What is evolution?

Evolution is the cornerstone of biology, explaining the incredible diversity of life on Earth. Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. This change is driven by various mechanisms, primarily natural selection.

What are the main features of evolution?

  • Descent with Modification: All living things share a common ancestor, and over time, populations have diverged through modifications in their heritable traits.
  • Variation: Individuals within a population exhibit variations in their traits, which arise from genetic differences.
  • Natural Selection: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations. This doesn't necessarily imply progress towards "better" but rather adaptation to the environment.
  • Genetic Drift: Random changes in gene frequencies within a population can also contribute to evolution.

Why is evolution important?

  • Evolution explains the origin of species, the intricate adaptations seen in living organisms, and their relationships to each other.
  • It provides a framework for understanding how life has changed and continues to change on Earth.
  • Evolutionary principles are crucial in various fields like medicine (antibiotic resistance), agriculture (pest control), and conservation biology.

What are applications of evolution in practice?

  • Drug Discovery: Studying how pathogens evolve resistance to drugs helps develop new strategies to combat infections.
  • Pest Management: Understanding how insects evolve resistance to pesticides allows for developing more sustainable control methods.
  • Conservation Biology: Evolutionary principles guide conservation efforts to protect endangered species and maintain biodiversity.

Practical example

  • The evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a classic example. When exposed to antibiotics, some bacteria with random mutations that provide resistance survive and reproduce. Over generations, these resistant bacteria become more common in the population, posing a significant challenge in medicine.

Critical comments

  • Evolution is a slow process that can be difficult to observe directly.
  • The theory of evolution is sometimes misunderstood or misrepresented.
  • There are ongoing debates on the role of chance vs. determinism in the evolutionary process.
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From language courses to gap year abroad, from work experience to volunteering abroad, from paid work to internship abroad, from mountaineering to diving and from backpacking to travel around the world

    What social activities can you do abroad?

    • Opportunities are found in the areas of helping, learning or studying. You can get involved to volunteer in a social project at a school in Africa, Asia or Latin America. You can get involved in nature, in a project with animals or cleaning the sea or beaches. Those who want to learn more can choose for example a language course in Latin America, Spain or South Africa.

    What work related activities can you do abroad?

    • If you want to gain work experience, and/or also earn money, go and work abroad. You can combine backpacking in Australia with temporary work. You can work on campsites in Europe or bush camps in Africa. You can pretty much go all over the world to work in the hospitality industry, hotels and hostels, in the healthcare sector or for example at a diving school.

    What sports activities to do abroad?

    • Have you ever thought of mountain biking, rafting (going down a wild river on a raft or rubber dinghy, climbing or canoeing), survival (which involves building rafts, climbing or canoeing), abseiling (descending a rock face while secured to ropes), zip-lining (whizzing down a cable), canyoning (starting at the top of a river and then climbing, swimming, diving down the bed) or caving (scrambling, wriggling and crawling through caves and crevices)?
    • Maybe you feel more comfortable on a bodyboard (on a half-wave surfboard, you surf the high waves lying down-with flippers), on a hang glider or while paragliding (with a parachute you float down a mountain or dune), hydrospeeding (on a bodyboard with flippers and a wetsuit on you go down a wild river via rapids) or Tiefschneeskiing (racing down through powder snow)?

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      Summaries for IT, Logistics and Technology

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      Summaries: home page for medicine and healthcare

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      Image ORGANIZATIONS

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      Iracambi

      Deze lokale organisatie biedt vrijwilligerswerk en stages aan op het gebied van natuurbehoud en wetenschappelijk onderzoek in Brazilië. Zo kun je bijvoorbeeld meewerken op het landgoed van de duurzame koffieplantages en zo meer leren over het planten en oogsten van koffie. Een andere mogelijkhe...

      Coral Cay Conservation

      Deze Engelse Marine Wildlife onderzoeksorganisatie treed ook op als bemiddelingsorganisatie voor vrijwilligerswerk gericht op het behoud van de onderwaterwereld in Sinai, Egypte. Zo kun je bijvoorbeeld meehelpen aan het behoud van koraalriffen door middel van onderzoek en het afbakenen van duikgebie...

      Sint Eustatius National Parks

      Sint Eustatius National Parks (Stenapa) is een stichting die drie natuurgebieden en een botanische tuin op het eiland Sint Eustatius beheert. Projecten van deze organisatie richten zich op natuur- en milieu-educatie, natuurbeheer en -behoud en het planten van inheemse bomen en planten.

      Oliver Ridley Project

      The Oliver Ridley Project is a charity that focusses on protecting sea turtles. on four project locations they educate local people, rescue injured turtles, cleaning the ocean from fishing nets, and do scientific research to better understand the life and needs of healthy sea turtle populations...

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      SPOTLIGHT & FAVORITES

      SPOTLIGHT
      What is biological sciences?

      Biological sciences, also commonly referred to as biology, is the overarching field dedicated to studying life on Earth in all its forms. It encompasses a vast array of disciplines, each focusing on different aspects of living organisms. What are the main features of biological sciences?

        <...>

      FAVORITES
      Summary: Essential Cell Biology (Alberts et al) - Second part

      This summary is based on the 3rd edition of Essential Cell Biology from Alberts et al. The first 10 chapters are open access and can be found here: First part of the summary

      • 11. Membrane structure
      • 12. Membrane transport
      • 13. How cells obtain energy from food
      • 14. E...

      Summary: Essential Cell Biology (Alberts et al) - First part

      This summary is based on the 3rd edition of Essential Cell Biology from Alberts et al. The remaining chapters can be accessed when logged in and can be found here: Second part of the summary

      • 1. Introduction to cells
      • 2. Chemical components of cells
      • 3. Energy, cat...

      What is biological sciences?

      Biological sciences, also commonly referred to as biology, is the overarching field dedicated to studying life on Earth in all its forms. It encompasses a vast array of disciplines, each focusing on different aspects of living organisms. What are the main features of biological sciences?

        <...>

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