An allergy occurs when your immune system overreacts to a normally harmless substance called an allergen. These allergens can be airborne (like pollen), ingested (like peanuts), or come into contact with your skin (like latex).

What are the main symptoms of an allergy?

• Runny or stuffy nose: This is a classic sign of allergies, often accompanied by sneezing and itchy, watery eyes.
• Skin reactions: Hives, redness, and eczema (inflamed, itchy skin) can occur with allergies, especially those triggered by contact with an allergen.
• Respiratory issues: Wheezing, coughing, and difficulty breathing are common symptoms of allergies that affect the airways, like allergic asthma.
• Digestive problems: In food allergies, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea can occur after ingesting the trigger food.
• Anaphylaxis: In rare cases, a severe allergic reaction called anaphylaxis can occur, causing difficulty breathing, a drop in blood pressure, and even death. This is a medical emergency.

What types of allergies are there?

The wide range of allergens triggers various types of allergies. Here are some common ones:

• Food Allergies: The immune system reacts to a specific food protein, causing symptoms like nausea, vomiting, hives, and in severe cases, anaphylaxis. Common food allergies include peanuts, milk, shellfish, eggs, and wheat.
• Inhalant Allergies: Airborne allergens like pollen, dust mites, pet dander, and mold trigger symptoms like sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and wheezing. Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) is a common inhalant allergy.
• Skin Allergies: Contact with certain substances like latex, nickel, or specific cosmetics can cause skin reactions like redness, itching, and blisters.
• Drug Allergies: Medications can trigger allergic reactions, ranging from mild rashes to life-threatening complications.
• Insect Sting Allergies: Bee stings, wasp stings, and other insect bites can cause localized reactions or severe systemic reactions.

Why is an allergy important?

• Widespread problem: Allergies are a growing public health concern, affecting millions worldwide.
• Quality of life: Allergies can significantly impact daily activities, causing discomfort, sleep disturbances, and anxiety.
• Early diagnosis and management: Proper identification and management can significantly improve a person's well-being and prevent complications like asthma attacks.

What is the prevalence of allergies among the world?

• 30-40%: Estimates suggest that between 30% and 40% of the global population experiences allergies. This translates to hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
• Dramatic Increase: The prevalence of allergic diseases is rising steadily, affecting both developed and developing countries.
• Developed vs. Developing: Developed countries tend to have a higher prevalence, with over 20% of their population affected in many cases. However, allergies are a growing concern in developing countries as well.

How do allergies come about?

The process is called the sensitization process and it consists of the following steps:

1. Initial Exposure: During the first encounter with an allergen, the immune system typically doesn't react.
2. Sensitization: The immune system develops a specific response to the allergen, creating antibodies (proteins) to fight it. This is called sensitization.
3. Overreaction: Upon subsequent exposure to the allergen, the immune system releases histamine and other chemicals, causing allergy symptoms.

Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, encompassing their journey from discovery and development to understanding their effects on the body. It's a bridge between chemistry, biology, and medicine, aiming to optimize the use of drugs for therapeutic benefit.

What are the main features of pharmacology?

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Pharmacology integrates knowledge from various fields like chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, and molecular biology to understand how drugs interact with the body at a cellular and organismal level.
• Rapidly Evolving: Advancements in technology like genomics and bioinformatics are constantly changing the way drugs are discovered, developed, and personalized for individual patients.
• Focus on Rational Drug Design: Pharmacologists aim to create new drugs by understanding the biological targets of diseases and designing molecules that interact specifically with those targets.

What are important sub-areas in pharmacology?

• Pharmacokinetics: Studies the movement of drugs through the body, including absorption, distribution, metabolism (breakdown), and excretion.
• Pharmacodynamics: Investigates the effects of drugs on the body, focusing on how they interact with cellular targets and produce their therapeutic effects.
• Toxicology: Evaluates the potential harmful effects of drugs and identifies safe and effective dosing regimes.
• Clinical Pharmacology: Tests and evaluates the safety and efficacy of drugs in human clinical trials.
• Molecular Pharmacology: Delves into the molecular mechanisms by which drugs interact with specific targets at the cellular level.

What are key concepts in pharmacology?

• Drug Receptor: A molecule on a cell's surface or within the cell that a drug can bind to, triggering its action.
• Mechanism of Action: The specific biochemical processes through which a drug exerts its therapeutic effect.
• Dose-Response Relationship: The relationship between the amount of a drug administered and the magnitude of its effect.
• Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs): Unintended and potentially harmful effects of a drug.

Who are influential figures in pharmacology?

• John Maynard Keynes: An early pharmacologist who pioneered the use of quantitative methods to study drug effects.
• James Black: Scottish pharmacologist who received the Nobel Prize for his work on receptor theory, a cornerstone of modern drug development.
• Gertrude B. Elion: American biochemist who codeveloped several life-saving drugs, including those for leukemia and organ transplant rejection.

Why is pharmacology important?

• Developing New Therapies: Pharmacological research is crucial for discovering and developing new drugs to treat a wide range of diseases.
• Optimizing Drug Use: Understanding drug action and metabolism allows for personalized treatment plans, maximizing benefit and minimizing side effects.
• Improving Patient Outcomes: Pharmacology helps ensure safe and effective use of medications, leading to better patient outcomes and improved quality of life.

How is pharmacology applied in practice?

• Drug Discovery and Development: Pharmacologists work with chemists and biologists to design, test, and refine potential new drugs.
• Clinical Trials: Pharmacologists are involved in designing and conducting clinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of new drugs in humans.
• Drug Prescribing and Monitoring: Physicians rely on pharmacological knowledge to choose the right medications for patients and monitor for potential side effects.
• Pharmacy Practice: Pharmacists utilize pharmacology principles to dispense medications,

Within medicine, vision science becomes a specialized field focusing on the diagnosis and treatment of disorders affecting the eye and the visual system. Focus: Diagnosing and treating all aspects of eye diseases, injuries, and visual impairments.

What are the main features of vision?

• Integrates knowledge of anatomy, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology of the eye.
• Requires expertise in performing various diagnostic tests and procedures on the eye.
• Combines medical and surgical skills to treat eye conditions.

What are important sub-areas in vision?

• Ocular Anatomy and Physiology: Deep understanding of the intricate structure and function of the eye.
• Ophthalmic Pathology: Studying the causes and effects of eye diseases at the cellular level.
• Ocular Pharmacology: Knowledge of medications used to treat eye conditions and their potential side effects.
• Ophthalmic Surgery: Performing various surgical procedures on the eye, including cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, and retinal detachment repair.
• Ophthalmic Pediatrics: Specializes in eye care for infants and children.
• Oculoplastic Surgery: Focuses on reconstructive surgery of the eyelids, orbit, and tear ducts.

What are key concepts in vision?

• Visual Acuity: The ability to see details clearly at a distance.
• Refraction: The process of measuring the focusing power of the eye to determine corrective lens prescriptions.
• Intraocular Pressure (IOP): The pressure within the eye, crucial for maintaining its shape and function. Elevated IOP is a risk factor for glaucoma.
• Ocular Motility: The movement and coordination of the eye muscles, enabling us to focus and track objects.
• Color Vision: Understanding how the eye perceives different colors and diagnosing color vision deficiencies.

Who are influential figures in vision?

• Hermann von Helmholtz: A 19th-century German polymath who significantly contributed to the understanding of the eye's optics and color vision.
• Alvar Gullstrand: A Swedish ophthalmologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the refractive properties of the eye.
• Louise Elisabeth Sattler: A German ophthalmologist and the first woman to become a professor of medicine in Europe. She pioneered cataract surgery techniques.
• Harold Ridley: A British ophthalmologist who accidentally discovered the use of biocompatible plastic lenses for intraocular implants after treating WWII soldiers with eye injuries.

Why is vision important?

Vision is crucial for overall health and well-being. An ophthalmologist plays a vital role in:

• Preventing vision loss: Early detection and treatment of eye diseases can prevent blindness or significant vision impairment.
• Restoring vision: Surgical procedures and other treatments can help restore vision lost due to cataracts, glaucoma, or other conditions.
• Maintaining eye health: Regular eye exams can detect signs of eye disease and eye conditions like diabetes that can affect vision.

How is vision applied in practice?

Ophthalmologists work in various settings:

• Hospitals and Clinics: Providing consultations, performing diagnostic tests, prescribing medications, and conducting eye surgeries.
• Private Practices: Offering specialized eye care services to patients of all ages.
• Academic Medical Centers: Leading research on eye diseases and developing new treatment options.
• Global Health Initiatives: Providing eye care services in underserved communities around the world.